M.B.M. Lankhuizen

The Trade-Off between Foreign Direct Investments and Exports: The Role of Multiple Dimensions of Distance

To serve foreign markets, firms can either export or set up a local subsidiary through horizontal Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The conventional proximity-concentration theory suggests that FDI substitutes for trade if distance between countries is large, while exports become more important if scale economies in production are large. This paper investigates empirically the effect of different dimensions of distance on the choice between exports and FDI. We find that different dimensions of distance affect exports and FDI differently. There is clear evidence of a proximity-concentration trade-off in geographical terms: the share of FDI sales in total foreign sales (exports and FDI sales) increases with geographical distance. The positive relation between import tariffs and FDI intensity provides further evidence for a trade-off resulting from trade costs. On the other hand, the share of FDI decreases with language differences and cultural and institutional barriers. The latter dimensions of distance thus affect FDI more strongly than exports.

Product Heterogeneity, Intangible Barriers and Distance Decay: The Effect of Multiple Dimensions of Distance on Trade Across Different Product Categories

Abstract We empirically examine the heterogeneity in the effects of multiple dimensions of distance on trade across detailed product groups. Using finite mixture modelling on bilateral trade data at the three-digit Standard International Trade Classification level, we endogenously group product categories into an a priori unknown number of segments based on estimated coefficients of multiple dimensions of distance in the gravity equation. We find that institutional distance, belonging to the same trade bloc and especially geographical distance are crucial and distinct factors for classifying commodities into homogeneous product groups.

The (Im)Possibility of Distinguishing Horizontal and Vertical Motivations for FDI

Skill differences between parent and host countries are considered a key variable for distinguishing horizontal and vertical motivations within aggregate foreign direct investment (FDI). This paper tests the robustness of the skill difference term in the knowledge-capital model for FDI in a sample of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. The evidence in this paper indicates that skill differences per se do not properly explain FDI: the skill level of the host country is also important. This paper argues that both horizontal and vertical FDI may increase in the skill level of the host. It follows that the distinction between vertical and horizontal motivations for FDI with respect to skills is less straightforward than generally assumed in the literature.