M. Rosa Elosúa

Normative data on the n-back task for children and young adolescents.

The n-back task is a frequently used measure of working memory (WM) in cognitive neuroscience research contexts, and it has become widely adopted in other areas over the last decade. This study aimed to obtain normative data for the n-back task from a large sample of children and adolescents. To this end, a computerized verbal n-back task with three levels of WM load (1-back, 2-back, and 3-back) was administered to 3722 Spanish school children aged 7–13 years. Results showed an overall age-related increase in performance for the different levels of difficulty. This trend was less pronounced at 1-back than at 2-back when hits were considered. Gender differences were also observed, with girls outperforming boys although taking more time to respond. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed. Normative data stratified by age and gender for the three WM load levels are provided.

Un estudio sobre las diferencias evolutivas en la memoria operativa: ¿capacidad o eficiencia?

ResumenEl objetivo de esta investigacion fue estudiar la capacidad y/o eficacia en el procesamiento de la memoria operativa (MO) en relacion con tres niveles escolares diferentes (4° y 7° de EGB; y 2° de BUP). Se utilizaron cuatro tareas experimentales de diferente nivel de dificultad, segun las demandas de capacidad y/o procesamiento implicadas en las mismas. Concretamente se presentaron una tarea clasica de «Amplitud de Palabras» (P), que requeria principalmente capacidad, una version espanola de la tarea de «Amplitud lectora» (L), (Daneman y Carpenter, 1980) en la cual estaban implicados tanto el componente de capacidad como el de procesamiento, una tarea de «Amplitud Operativa de Digitos» (D), (Oakhill, Yuill y Parkin, 1986), de la mismas caracteristicas, aunque esta vez con digitos y, finalmente, una tarea original de «Procesamiento aritmetico y amplitud numerica» (A), en la cual tanto el componente de capacidad como el de procesamiento con digitos eran aun mas dificiles. Se planteo la hipotesis de q...

Experimental But Not Sex Differences of a Mental Rotation Training Program on Adolescents.

Given the importance of visuospatial processing in areas related to the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) disciplines, where there is still a considerable gap in the area of sex differences, the interest in the effects of visuospatial skills training continues to grow. Therefore, we have evaluated the visuospatial improvement of adolescents after performing a computerized mental rotation training program, as well as the relationship of this visuospatial ability with other cognitive, emotional factors and those factors based on the experience with videogames. The study, which was performed on students aged 14 and 15 years old, showed a significant improvement in this visuospatial skill for a training group (n = 21) compared to a control group (n = 24). Furthermore, no significant sex differences were obtained for spatial ability or for any of the other tasks evaluated, either before or after training. Regarding the relationship between skills, a significant correlation between experience with video games and spatial ability was found, as well as between mathematical reasoning and intelligence and with spatial ability in the initial phase for the total sample. These findings are discussed from a cognitive point of view and within the current sociocultural context, where the equal use of new technologies could help reduce the visuospatial gap between sexes.

The Influence of Gratitude in Physical, Psychological, and Spiritual Well-Being

This study examines the influence of gratitude on physical, psychological, and spiritual well-being. First, we describe what gratitude is and review the most representative psychological studies dealing with gratitude, focusing on the implications of gratitude for health. Furthermore, following the recent theory proposed by Seligman (2012) on the understanding of happiness and psychological well-being, these studies form part of the new horizon of psychological well-being where gratitude plays a part. The present study shows that an increase in the feeling of and disposition towards gratitude can favor well-being and personal health.

Lifetime psychopathological dimensions, cognitive impairment and functional outcome in psychosis

Psychopathological symptoms and cognitive impairment are related to psychosocial functioning. However, the nature of the association of cognitive impairment with psychosocial functioning still remains under scrutiny. We aimed to examine the relationships of premorbid adjustment, lifetime psychopathological dimensions, and cognitive performance with the typical level of psychosocial functioning during the previous year. We assessed ninety patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and affective disorders with psychotic symptoms to collect data on premorbid adjustment, lifetime psychopathological dimensions, cognitive performance and psychosocial functioning. Sixty-five healthy volunteers were included as controls. Pearsons correlations and hierarchical regression analyses were performed to ascertain to what extent the aforementioned variables predicted psychosocial functioning. Functional domains were significantly correlated with most of the premorbid features, lifetime psychopathological dimensions and cognitive domains. However, lifetime negative symptoms were the best predictors of psychosocial functioning in the hierarchical regression analyses (explaining between 47 and 64% of the variance). For psychosocial outcome in patients with psychoses, lifetime negative symptoms showed a stronger predictive validity than cognitive impairment or premorbid adjustment.

From What Age Is Mental Rotation Training Effective? Differences in Preschool Age but Not in Sex

Currently, there is evidence that spatial skills training leads to an improvement of such skills, although studies with children in the Preschool stage are very scarce. This paper aims to examine the effectiveness of mental rotation (MR) training and sex differences in preschool children. Two experiments were carried out. Experiment 1 included 59 children of 1st course (aged between 3 and 4 years) and Experiment 2, 61 children of 2nd course (aged between 4 and 5 years) of Preschool Education, distributed into control and training groups. The results showed a significant improvement in the MR ability of the training group (measured through a different test than the one used for training) only in the older children, and a tendency toward significance in the younger participants. Moreover, no sex differences in MR or group differences across age groups were found. These results regarding MR training support the malleability of spatial skills approach, particularly in 4–5 year-old preschoolers. This malleability should be enhanced in our educational system, as well as the implementation of educational and social policies that tend toward equality between sexes in the development of spatial skills. This can promote an equitable access to academic careers requiring high spatial skills such as engineering, science, technology or mathematics, in which nowadays women are underrepresented.

Differences in Executive Functioning in Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

In recent years, the interest in Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and its relation to deficits in working memory (WM) and more specifically the different executive functions (EFs) has grown, to the point of confirming that these are quite frequent in this disorder. The aim of this study was precisely to explore differences in executive functioning of WM in fourth grade Primary school children with and without ADHD (26 and 29 children, respectively), introducing rigorous control measures in the tests used. Four EFs were analyzed: divided attention, updating, attentional shifting and inhibition, measured through four tasks, the dual-task paradigm (digits and box-crossing), the N-Back task, the Trail Making Test and the Stroop task, respectively. The results showed that participants with ADHD, compared to children with typical development (TD), exhibited a smaller verbal memory span as well as deficits in the attentional shifting and updating functions. However, a similar performance for the EF of inhibition was found for both groups of participants. Finally, an unexpected result was obtained with regard to the role of divided attention, as children with ADHD were less impaired when performing the double task than participants in the TD group.

Gender Differences in Verbal and Visuospatial Working Memory Tasks in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer Disease

Background/Aims: To date, there are few studies on gender differences in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer disease (AD). In the present study, the existence of differences between sexes in verbal and visuospatial working memory tasks in the evolution of cognitive and pathological aging was examined. Method: Ninety participants took part in this study: 30 AD, 30 MCI, and 30 healthy elderly participants (50% men and 50% women). Results: There were no significant differences between men and women with AD in visuospatial tasks, whereas these differences were found within the MCI group, with the average of men achieving significantly higher results than women. In verbal tasks, there were no differences between sexes for any of the groups. Conclusion: Execution in visuospatial tasks tends to depend on gender, whereas this does not occur for verbal tasks.

The suppression effect in visuospatial and verbal working memory span tasks in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a 2-year follow-up study.

ABSTRACT This study adapted a new task to assess visuospatial and verbal working memory impairments in patients with Alzheimer Disease (AD), including an executive strategy of information suppression. The aim was to examine the visuospatial and verbal difficulties, and additionally to explore the average sex differences, during a 2-year follow-up study. The results indicated that patients with AD showed a significantly lower performance, compared with healthy elderly controls, especially with the suppression of information required in this new task. However, suppression did not lead to a significantly greater decline in the performance of patients when compared with the control group.

Developmental differences between 1st and 3rd year of Early Childhood Education (preschool) in mental rotation and its training

Research has shown that mental rotation (MR) can be improved through training. However, studies with preschool children are very scarce, due in part to the lack of consensus as to the age at which this ability arises and can be trained, and due to the difficulties of working on the understanding of this ability when it begins to develop. The present study was designed to observe the effect of an MR training on 1st (3–4-year-old children) and 3rd year (5–6-year-old children) of Early Childhood Education (preschool), as well as the development of this ability between both courses. Finally, this study aimed to analyze the differential increase of the training effect in relation to the initial MR ability of the participants. The results showed a significant improvement in the participants who underwent training in 3rd year of preschool, with the trained group showing a marginal improvement in 1st year of preschool. The older group showed lower error rates in training performance than the younger group, the latter having a linear decrease in performance as the angular disparity increased. In addition, in relation to training, a greater increase of MR was observed in the 3rd year preschoolers with lower scores in the pretest. These results suggest that MR is in full development and that it is a spatial ability that can be trained at preschool ages. In addition, the possibility of enhancing this ability to a greater extent in preschoolers who exhibit lower initial MR level is especially relevant.