Maamer Slimani

Do cognitive training strategies improve motor and positive psychological skills development in soccer players? Insights from a systematic review

ABSTRACT Soccer players are required to have well-developed physical, technical and cognitive abilities. The present systematic review, adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines, examined the effects of cognitive training strategies on motor and positive psychological skills development in soccer performance and identified the potential moderators of the “cognitive training–soccer performance” relationship. Thirteen databases were systematically searched using keywords related to psychological or cognitive training in soccer players. The review is based on 18 studies, employing 584 soccer players aged 7–39 years. Cognitive strategies, particularly imagery, appear to improve sports performance in soccer players. Regarding imagery, the combination of two different types of cognitive imagery training (i.e., cognitive general and cognitive specific) has a positive influence on soccer performance during training, whereas motivational imagery (i.e., motivational general-arousal, motivational general-mastery and motivational specific) enhance competition performance. Younger soccer players employ cognitive general and cognitive specific imagery techniques to a greater extent than older soccer players. Combined cognitive training strategies were more beneficial than a single cognitive strategy relative to motor skills enhancement in elite (particularly midfielders) and amateur (i.e., when practising complex and specific soccer skills in precompetitive period) soccer players. In conclusion, it appears that there are differences in cognitive/psychological training interventions, and their efficacy, according to whether they are directed towards training or competition, and the age, standard and playing position of the players.

Mediator and moderator variables of imagery use-motor learning and sport performance relationships: a narrative review

The aim of the present review paper was to identify the potential mediator and moderator variables involved in the recommendation of which types (functions) of imagery are the greatest use to the performer. The current review has proven that the efficacy in using imagery as a mediator of the relationship between imagery ability and cognitive imagery use. Particularly, it has been consistently found that athletes who use motivational general-mastery (MG-M) imagery report higher levels of both self-confidence and self-efficacy. As moderator variables, the reviewed studies have revealed that the stage of skill learning has a differential effect on the type of imagery used by athletes. Firstly, in the early stages of skill acquisition, novices may use imagery primarily for its cognitive specific (CS) function to assist in the organization of information (about the skill or strategy to be learnt). Secondly, in the autonomous stage of learning, athletes reported their use of imagery for MG-M function. Typically, MG-M imagery is mostly used in competition and CS imagery is mostly in practice, with motivational specific (MS) and motivational general-arousal (MG-A) imagery the least used in both these settings. However, the present review also showed that athletes at higher competitive levels used all five functions of imagery to a greater extent in both training and competition than do athletes at lower levels. In addition, this review indicated that athletes in closed-skill sports use more cognitive imagery functions [CS and cognitive general (CG)] than athletes in open-skill sports. While, athletes in open-skilled sports used significantly more MG-A imagery than those in closed-skill sports. It has also been shown that CG imagery is used more in such team sports (i.e., soccer) to build or maintain confidence and self-efficacy, and the CS imagery is used to improve sport performance (i.e., passing, dribbling). In conclusion, the data obtained in the present review have shown that self-efficacy as factors that may facilitate the effectiveness of imagery use by athletes. Thus, athletes report using imagery for all five functions (CG, CS, MG-A, MG-M, and MS imagery), MG-M and CS imagery are typically the most frequently employed. Whereas, MG-M and CG functions used to build or maintain confidence and self-efficacy, and CS function used to improve skill learning and sport performance. From an applied perspective, sport psychologists and fitness trainers can be implemented mental imagery training according to their athlete levels, types of skills, the intended outcome for the imagery use, phase of learning, and sport situations.

Effects of recreational soccer on physical fitness and health indices in sedentary healthy and unhealthy subjects

Recreational soccer (RS) is becoming a popular alternative to the classical continuous exercise mode used for the improvement of cardiovascular and metabolic fitness in untrained people. The objective of this paper was to conduct a detailed systematic review of the literature, identifying the physiological responses to RS and the training effects of RS on aerobic fitness and health in untrained healthy individuals and clinical patients. PubMed, Google Scholar and ScienceDirect databases were searched using terms related to recreational soccer. Inclusion criteria were randomized controlled trials (RCT) that assessed acute physiological responses to RS or the training effects of RS on physical fitness and health in sedentary, untrained subjects of any age or health status. All studies were assessed for methodological quality using the PEDro scale. Thirty-five articles met the inclusion criteria; seven examined the acute response to RS, and 28 assessed training effects. Clear evidence was found that RS had positive effects on many health-related indices and variables, including VO2max (gains of 7-16%), blood pressure (reductions of 6-13 mmHg), body composition (decreased fat mass and improved indices of bone health), and metabolic and cardiac function. These positive effects were observed in both healthy individuals and clinical patients, irrespective of age or sex. Although this review provides clear evidence of the positive effects of RS on health, most studies had limitations of methodology (an average PEDro score < 6). Furthermore, many of the training studies were from a small number of research groups. Future studies should be extended to other countries and institutions to ensure generality of the results. Regular RS training leads to significant cardiovascular and muscular adaptations and gains of health both in sedentary individuals and clinical patients at all ages, suggesting that RS is a potentially highly motivational method to enhance population health.

Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review

Abstract Plyometric training (PT) is a very popular form of physical conditioning of healthy individuals that has been extensively studied over the last decades. In this article, we critically review the available literature related to PT and its effects on physical fitness in team sport athletes. We also considered studies that combined PT with other popular training modalities (e.g. strength/sprint training). Generally, short-term PT (i.e. 2-3 sessions a week for 4-16 weeks) improves jump height, sprint and agility performances in team sport players. Literature shows that short PT (<8 weeks) has the potential to enhance a wide range of athletic performance (i.e. jumping, sprinting and agility) in children and young adult amateur players. Nevertheless, 6 to 7 weeks training appears to be too short to improve physical performance in elite male players. Available evidence suggests that short-term PT on non-rigid surfaces (i.e. aquatic, grass or sand-based PT) could elicit similar increases in jumping, sprinting and agility performances as traditional PT. Furthermore, the combination of various plyometric exercises and the bilateral and unilateral jumps could improve these performances more than the use of single plyometric drills or traditional PT. Thus, the present review shows a greater effect of PT alone on jump and sprint (30 m sprint performance only) performances than the combination of PT with sprint/strength training. Although many issues related to PT remain to be resolved, the results presented in this review allow recommending the use of well-designed and sport-specific PT as a safe and effective training modality for improving jumping and sprint performance as well as agility in team sport athletes.

Comparison of combat outcomes: technical and tactical analysis of female MMA

The aim of the present study was to compare the technical-tactical aspects of female professional mixed martial arts (MMA) matches by combat outcomes and rounds from the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC™). We analyzed 174 rounds separated by Combat Outcomes (Split Decision n=54; Unanimous Decision n=72; KO/TKO n=28; Submission n=20) of 2012-2014 events. The time-motion variables were categorized into total combat time separated by the amount of time spent performing low or high intensity activity per round, on stand-up or groundwork situations. The principal findings showed significant differences between Split and Unanimous Decision outcomes vs. KO/TKO and Submission groups in stand-up combat with low intensity by round (160.4±83.6s and 158.4±87.6s vs. 44.8±38.8s and 42.1±44.1s, respectively, p<0.001) and in total combat time by round (300.7±0.3s and 300.0±0.4s vs. 154.4±95.2s and 204.2±96.6s, respectively, p<0.001). Significant differences were found when compared the Total, Head and Leg Strikes Attempts, where winners by KO/TKO and Submission demonstrated lower frequencies than Split and Unanimous Decision(p<0.001; for all comparisons). In conclusion, technical-tactical skills can be associated with contextualized practices, where female athletes who finalized the matches by KO/TKO and Submission had higher values of striking and grappling actions during the groundwork combat, while those who had Split or Unanimous Decision outcomes showed higher values of striking actions during stand-up combat.

Steroid hormones and psychological responses to soccer matches: Insights from a systematic review and meta-analysis

The present systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the perturbations in hormonal and psychological homeostasis in response to soccer match-play. These perturbations were explored according to match outcome (i.e., win versus loss), gender, type of contest (i.e., competitive versus non-competitive fixtures) and competitive level (i.e., novice versus high-level). The review was conducted according to the Population/Intervention or Exposure/Comparison/Outcome(s) (PICO) criteria and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Match outcome, type of contest and competitive levels were moderator variables in the examined steroid hormones responses to a soccer match-play. Different testosterone responses were seen between match winners (increase) and losers (decrease) when compared to pre-game or baseline values (p <0.05), whilst no changes could be detected for cortisol relative to match outcome in female soccer players. Males (Δ% = 6.26; ES = 0.28) demonstrated a marginally lower increase in testosterone levels when compared to females (Δ% = 49.16; ES = 1.00), though not statistically significant. Females (Δ% = 162.7; ES = 0.98) did not demonstrate elevated cortisol match response compared to males (Δ% = 34.60; ES = 1.20). Male novice soccer match-play increased cortisol levels compared to high-level soccer match-play (Q = 18.08, p<0.001). Competitive soccer matches increased cortisol levels compared to non-competitive fixtures (i.e., collegiate tournament). Additionally, competitive levels moderate the relationship between a soccer match and testosterone levels (p <0.001), regardless of gender differences. From the presented systematic review and meta-analysis it appears (1) cortisol changes are associated with cognitive anxiety in starter female soccer players, while (2) testosterone changes are associated with changes in mood state in females and social connectedness in male soccer players. This apparent psycho-physiological relationship may proffer the opportunity for targeted intervention(s) by practitioners to favorably influence performance and/or recovery agendas. Further mechanistic and/or applied evidence is required in this regard in addition to further data sets from females.

Comparison of Mental Toughness and Power Test Performances in High-Level Kickboxers by Competitive Success

Background Kickboxing is a high-intensity intermittent striking combat sport, which is characterized by complex skills and tactical key actions with short duration. Objectives The present study compared and verified the relationship between mental toughness (MT), countermovement jump (CMJ) and medicine ball throw (MBT) power tests by outcomes of high-level kickboxers during National Championship. Materials and Methods Thirty two high-level male kickboxers (winner = 16 and loser = 16: 21.2 ± 3.1 years, 1.73 ± 0.07 m, and 70.2 ± 9.4 kg) were analyzed using the CMJ, MBT tests and sports mental toughness questionnaire (SMTQ; based in confidence, constancy and control subscales), before the fights of the 2015 national championship (16 bouts). In statistical analysis, Mann-Withney test and a multiple linear regression were used to compare groups and to observe relationships, respectively, P ≤ 0.05. Results The present results showed significant differences between losers vs. winners, respectively, of total MT (7(7;8) vs. 11(10.2;11), confidence (3(3;3) vs. 4(4;4)), constancy (2(2;2) vs. 3(3;3)), control (2(2;3) vs. 4(4;4)) subscales and MBT (4.1(4;4.3) vs. 4.6(4.4;4.8)). The multiple linear regression showed a strong associations between MT results and outcome (r = 0.89), MBT (r = 0.84) and CMJ (r = 0.73). Conclusions The findings suggest that MT will be more predictive of performance in those sports and in the outcome of competition.

Effects of the Retraining in Endurance on Anthropometric and Metabolic Profiles' Evolution of the Tunisian Obese Pubescent Boys

Fifty-three Tunisian obese pubescent boys (15.4 ± 1.7 years, 96.4 ± 13.2 kg, 1.71 ± 0.1 cm) were submitted to a retraining program in endurance for two months which includes three sessions of 45 minutes per week of pedalling on an ergometer cycle and this to assess the effects on anthropometric and metabolic profiles. Our results showed that the retraining in endurance beneficially affects the above parameters such as reflected by the reduction of BMI, and abdominal and hip perimeters decrease. These changes were also accompanied, firstly by the reduction of the levels of glucoses, total cholesterol, LDLc and triglycerides, and secondly by the increase of HDLc amount which has reduced the LDLc/HDLc ratio. A reduction in levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines namely the IL-6 and TNF-α was also observed. We conclude that the retraining in endurance reduces the weight load of the Tunisian obese pubescent boys and improves their metabolic profiles.

Heart rate monitoring during combat sports matches: a brief review

ABSTRACT The aims of the present short review were to (i) summarise data relating to the heart rate (HR) response to combat sports matches according to many factors and (ii) determine the cardiovascular demand and intensity of combat sports matches. The present review shows that HR increased significantly across rounds during male taekwondo, boxing and kickboxing matches. HR and maximal heart rate (HRmax) increased significantly across successive karate and judo combat matches in young men and boy athletes. It has also been shown that there are no significant differences between winners and losers and males and females in HR response during official and simulated striking combat sports matches. Furthermore, combat HR intensity as a percentage of HRmax varied from 90% to 94%, from 86% to 100%, from 83% to 94%, and approximately 95% during judo, taekwondo, karate and Muay Thai matches, respectively. Coaches, sports scientists and athletes can also use HR to (i) assess athletes’ cardiovascular demand and (ii) monitor exercise intensity during combat sports matches.

Hormonal responses to a rugby match: a brief review

INTRODUCTION Rugby is an intermittent team sport, commonly stressing the endocrine system by physiological efforts. However, no review has synthesized the available literature on the hormonal responses to a rugby match. The purpose of this review was to examine the hormonal responses to a rugby match. Mediator and moderator variables for the rugby match-hormonal responses relationship were also discussed. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION The systematic search was conducted using different databases and according to the Population/Intervention or Exposure/Comparison/Outcome(s) (PICO) criteria. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS The data obtained in the present review show that match contests were the moderator variable between rugby match-testosterone changes relationship. Particularly, official matches decreased pre-to-post testosterone levels by 43.9%, while simulated matches increased pre-to-post testosterone levels by 33.6%. There were no significant differences between official and simulated contests for the cortisol response to a rugby match which could be explained in part by the small numbers of included studies and participants (71 high-level male players). Thus, it has been shown that a rugby match provides considerable stress to the endocrine system, which lasts up 38-48 h into the recovery period. CONCLUSIONS The hormonal assessment of rugby players is a valid tool for monitoring stress during a rugby match and provides the opportunity to identify how athletes cope with stress induced by a competition. The information also provides potential for various mental/recovery strategies that may contribute to performance enhancement.