Foued Chéour

Do cognitive training strategies improve motor and positive psychological skills development in soccer players? Insights from a systematic review

ABSTRACT Soccer players are required to have well-developed physical, technical and cognitive abilities. The present systematic review, adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis guidelines, examined the effects of cognitive training strategies on motor and positive psychological skills development in soccer performance and identified the potential moderators of the “cognitive training–soccer performance” relationship. Thirteen databases were systematically searched using keywords related to psychological or cognitive training in soccer players. The review is based on 18 studies, employing 584 soccer players aged 7–39 years. Cognitive strategies, particularly imagery, appear to improve sports performance in soccer players. Regarding imagery, the combination of two different types of cognitive imagery training (i.e., cognitive general and cognitive specific) has a positive influence on soccer performance during training, whereas motivational imagery (i.e., motivational general-arousal, motivational general-mastery and motivational specific) enhance competition performance. Younger soccer players employ cognitive general and cognitive specific imagery techniques to a greater extent than older soccer players. Combined cognitive training strategies were more beneficial than a single cognitive strategy relative to motor skills enhancement in elite (particularly midfielders) and amateur (i.e., when practising complex and specific soccer skills in precompetitive period) soccer players. In conclusion, it appears that there are differences in cognitive/psychological training interventions, and their efficacy, according to whether they are directed towards training or competition, and the age, standard and playing position of the players.

Mediator and moderator variables of imagery use-motor learning and sport performance relationships: a narrative review

The aim of the present review paper was to identify the potential mediator and moderator variables involved in the recommendation of which types (functions) of imagery are the greatest use to the performer. The current review has proven that the efficacy in using imagery as a mediator of the relationship between imagery ability and cognitive imagery use. Particularly, it has been consistently found that athletes who use motivational general-mastery (MG-M) imagery report higher levels of both self-confidence and self-efficacy. As moderator variables, the reviewed studies have revealed that the stage of skill learning has a differential effect on the type of imagery used by athletes. Firstly, in the early stages of skill acquisition, novices may use imagery primarily for its cognitive specific (CS) function to assist in the organization of information (about the skill or strategy to be learnt). Secondly, in the autonomous stage of learning, athletes reported their use of imagery for MG-M function. Typically, MG-M imagery is mostly used in competition and CS imagery is mostly in practice, with motivational specific (MS) and motivational general-arousal (MG-A) imagery the least used in both these settings. However, the present review also showed that athletes at higher competitive levels used all five functions of imagery to a greater extent in both training and competition than do athletes at lower levels. In addition, this review indicated that athletes in closed-skill sports use more cognitive imagery functions [CS and cognitive general (CG)] than athletes in open-skill sports. While, athletes in open-skilled sports used significantly more MG-A imagery than those in closed-skill sports. It has also been shown that CG imagery is used more in such team sports (i.e., soccer) to build or maintain confidence and self-efficacy, and the CS imagery is used to improve sport performance (i.e., passing, dribbling). In conclusion, the data obtained in the present review have shown that self-efficacy as factors that may facilitate the effectiveness of imagery use by athletes. Thus, athletes report using imagery for all five functions (CG, CS, MG-A, MG-M, and MS imagery), MG-M and CS imagery are typically the most frequently employed. Whereas, MG-M and CG functions used to build or maintain confidence and self-efficacy, and CS function used to improve skill learning and sport performance. From an applied perspective, sport psychologists and fitness trainers can be implemented mental imagery training according to their athlete levels, types of skills, the intended outcome for the imagery use, phase of learning, and sport situations.

Effects of Plyometric Training on Physical Fitness in Team Sport Athletes: A Systematic Review

Abstract Plyometric training (PT) is a very popular form of physical conditioning of healthy individuals that has been extensively studied over the last decades. In this article, we critically review the available literature related to PT and its effects on physical fitness in team sport athletes. We also considered studies that combined PT with other popular training modalities (e.g. strength/sprint training). Generally, short-term PT (i.e. 2-3 sessions a week for 4-16 weeks) improves jump height, sprint and agility performances in team sport players. Literature shows that short PT (<8 weeks) has the potential to enhance a wide range of athletic performance (i.e. jumping, sprinting and agility) in children and young adult amateur players. Nevertheless, 6 to 7 weeks training appears to be too short to improve physical performance in elite male players. Available evidence suggests that short-term PT on non-rigid surfaces (i.e. aquatic, grass or sand-based PT) could elicit similar increases in jumping, sprinting and agility performances as traditional PT. Furthermore, the combination of various plyometric exercises and the bilateral and unilateral jumps could improve these performances more than the use of single plyometric drills or traditional PT. Thus, the present review shows a greater effect of PT alone on jump and sprint (30 m sprint performance only) performances than the combination of PT with sprint/strength training. Although many issues related to PT remain to be resolved, the results presented in this review allow recommending the use of well-designed and sport-specific PT as a safe and effective training modality for improving jumping and sprint performance as well as agility in team sport athletes.

Steroid hormones and psychological responses to soccer matches: Insights from a systematic review and meta-analysis

The present systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the perturbations in hormonal and psychological homeostasis in response to soccer match-play. These perturbations were explored according to match outcome (i.e., win versus loss), gender, type of contest (i.e., competitive versus non-competitive fixtures) and competitive level (i.e., novice versus high-level). The review was conducted according to the Population/Intervention or Exposure/Comparison/Outcome(s) (PICO) criteria and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Match outcome, type of contest and competitive levels were moderator variables in the examined steroid hormones responses to a soccer match-play. Different testosterone responses were seen between match winners (increase) and losers (decrease) when compared to pre-game or baseline values (p <0.05), whilst no changes could be detected for cortisol relative to match outcome in female soccer players. Males (Δ% = 6.26; ES = 0.28) demonstrated a marginally lower increase in testosterone levels when compared to females (Δ% = 49.16; ES = 1.00), though not statistically significant. Females (Δ% = 162.7; ES = 0.98) did not demonstrate elevated cortisol match response compared to males (Δ% = 34.60; ES = 1.20). Male novice soccer match-play increased cortisol levels compared to high-level soccer match-play (Q = 18.08, p<0.001). Competitive soccer matches increased cortisol levels compared to non-competitive fixtures (i.e., collegiate tournament). Additionally, competitive levels moderate the relationship between a soccer match and testosterone levels (p <0.001), regardless of gender differences. From the presented systematic review and meta-analysis it appears (1) cortisol changes are associated with cognitive anxiety in starter female soccer players, while (2) testosterone changes are associated with changes in mood state in females and social connectedness in male soccer players. This apparent psycho-physiological relationship may proffer the opportunity for targeted intervention(s) by practitioners to favorably influence performance and/or recovery agendas. Further mechanistic and/or applied evidence is required in this regard in addition to further data sets from females.

Comparison of Mental Toughness and Power Test Performances in High-Level Kickboxers by Competitive Success

Background Kickboxing is a high-intensity intermittent striking combat sport, which is characterized by complex skills and tactical key actions with short duration. Objectives The present study compared and verified the relationship between mental toughness (MT), countermovement jump (CMJ) and medicine ball throw (MBT) power tests by outcomes of high-level kickboxers during National Championship. Materials and Methods Thirty two high-level male kickboxers (winner = 16 and loser = 16: 21.2 ± 3.1 years, 1.73 ± 0.07 m, and 70.2 ± 9.4 kg) were analyzed using the CMJ, MBT tests and sports mental toughness questionnaire (SMTQ; based in confidence, constancy and control subscales), before the fights of the 2015 national championship (16 bouts). In statistical analysis, Mann-Withney test and a multiple linear regression were used to compare groups and to observe relationships, respectively, P ≤ 0.05. Results The present results showed significant differences between losers vs. winners, respectively, of total MT (7(7;8) vs. 11(10.2;11), confidence (3(3;3) vs. 4(4;4)), constancy (2(2;2) vs. 3(3;3)), control (2(2;3) vs. 4(4;4)) subscales and MBT (4.1(4;4.3) vs. 4.6(4.4;4.8)). The multiple linear regression showed a strong associations between MT results and outcome (r = 0.89), MBT (r = 0.84) and CMJ (r = 0.73). Conclusions The findings suggest that MT will be more predictive of performance in those sports and in the outcome of competition.

Effects of the Retraining in Endurance on Anthropometric and Metabolic Profiles' Evolution of the Tunisian Obese Pubescent Boys

Fifty-three Tunisian obese pubescent boys (15.4 ± 1.7 years, 96.4 ± 13.2 kg, 1.71 ± 0.1 cm) were submitted to a retraining program in endurance for two months which includes three sessions of 45 minutes per week of pedalling on an ergometer cycle and this to assess the effects on anthropometric and metabolic profiles. Our results showed that the retraining in endurance beneficially affects the above parameters such as reflected by the reduction of BMI, and abdominal and hip perimeters decrease. These changes were also accompanied, firstly by the reduction of the levels of glucoses, total cholesterol, LDLc and triglycerides, and secondly by the increase of HDLc amount which has reduced the LDLc/HDLc ratio. A reduction in levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines namely the IL-6 and TNF-α was also observed. We conclude that the retraining in endurance reduces the weight load of the Tunisian obese pubescent boys and improves their metabolic profiles.

Hormonal responses to a rugby match: a brief review

INTRODUCTION Rugby is an intermittent team sport, commonly stressing the endocrine system by physiological efforts. However, no review has synthesized the available literature on the hormonal responses to a rugby match. The purpose of this review was to examine the hormonal responses to a rugby match. Mediator and moderator variables for the rugby match-hormonal responses relationship were also discussed. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION The systematic search was conducted using different databases and according to the Population/Intervention or Exposure/Comparison/Outcome(s) (PICO) criteria. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS The data obtained in the present review show that match contests were the moderator variable between rugby match-testosterone changes relationship. Particularly, official matches decreased pre-to-post testosterone levels by 43.9%, while simulated matches increased pre-to-post testosterone levels by 33.6%. There were no significant differences between official and simulated contests for the cortisol response to a rugby match which could be explained in part by the small numbers of included studies and participants (71 high-level male players). Thus, it has been shown that a rugby match provides considerable stress to the endocrine system, which lasts up 38-48 h into the recovery period. CONCLUSIONS The hormonal assessment of rugby players is a valid tool for monitoring stress during a rugby match and provides the opportunity to identify how athletes cope with stress induced by a competition. The information also provides potential for various mental/recovery strategies that may contribute to performance enhancement.

Kickboxing review: anthropometric, psychophysiological and activity profiles and injury epidemiology

Kickboxing is one of the modern combat sports. The psychophysiological demands of a kickboxing competition require athletes to achieve high thresholds of several aspects of physical fitness. The aim of the current review is to critically analyse and appraise the kickboxer’s anthropometric, physiological, physical and psychological attributes with the activity profile and injury epidemiology in order to provide practical recommendations for training as well as new areas of scientific research. The available information shows that both amateur and elite-level male kickboxers are characterized by a higher proportion of mesomorphy with a well-developed muscle mass and low body fat percentage. While there is some variation in the maximum oxygen uptake of kickboxers, moderate to high cardio-respiratory levels are reported for these athletes. Regardless of kickboxers’ level, a high peak and mean anaerobic power output were reported. High-level kickboxing performance also requires well-developed muscle power in both the upper and lower limbs. Psychological factors contribute to success that requires high levels of self-confidence, motivation, dispositional hope and optimism, mental toughness/resiliency, and adaptive perfectionism. Psychological attributes also distinguished successful from less successful kickboxers. The activity-to-rest ratio was higher in elite (1:1) than both amateur and national-level (from 1:2 to 1:5) kickboxers, with no significant differences between rounds (round 1=1:4, and rounds 2 and 3=1:5) as well as between winners and losers in amateur and national-level simulated combats. These particular psychophysiological characteristics and performance aspects of kickboxers influence performance and could serve as guidance for training. Finally, kickboxing is characterized by chronic repetitive head trauma, which causes hypopituitarism due to traumatic brain injury (TBI). Future investigations into the physical, physiological and psychological characteristics related to age, gender and competitive levels of kickboxers are required to enrich the current knowledge and to help create the most suitable training programme.

Effects of In-Season Combined Training on Running, Jumping, Agility and Rate of Force Development in Pubertal Soccer Players

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of in-season combined resistance and pliometric/sprint training with pliometric/sprint or conventional soccer training alone on field and laboratory measurements expressing explosivity in pubertal soccer players. Thirty one young soccer players ((age (mean ± SD) 14.5 ± 0.52 years; height 172.25 ± 6.66 cm; mass 60.25 ± 6.52 kg) from one team were randomly assigned to either combined-soccer (Combined, n = 14), pliometric-soccer (Pliometric, n = 9) or a control-soccer (Control, n = 8). Two sessions added to habitual soccer regime consisting of one session of resistance exercises combined with one session of plyometric/sprint training for combined group, two sessions of pliometric training for pliometric group and two sessions based on soccer training for control group. Before and after 7-weeks training, isomeric maximal voluntary contraction (IMVC), rate of force development (RFD) in time intervals of 0-10, 0-20…0-250 ms from the onset of contraction, jumping ability, running speed and agility were assessed. Combined group increased significantly their IMVC (from 296.6 ± 74.07 to 339.87 ± 78.9 N.m (p< 0.001) and reduced their 5m-running time (from 1.06 ± 0.07 to 1.01 ± 0.06 sec; p< 0.001) without any significant differences of maximal strength or running performance for other groups. Moreover, combined group revealed a grater improvement of jumping performance mainly in Squat Jump (SJ) and Countermovement Jump (CMJ) and the RFD in earlier phase than pliometric group with unchanged values for all measurements in control group. We concluded for a more effectiveness of a combined resistance and pliometric/sprint training than only pliometric/sprint or conventional soccer training for enhancing explosive actions performance and power.

Effects of Monological and Sophrological Trainings on the Development of Attention and Retention in Tunisian Male Kick Boxers

This study aims to evaluate the effects of mental training on the development of attention and retention skills in Tunisian male kick boxers. Hundred and twenty athletes, with homogeneous age (22 ± 2.3 years), height (1.74 ± 0.08 m) and weight (65 ± 10.2 kg) were selected for the study. They were divided into three groups of forty subjects; the first two have been submitted to the monological or sophrological training and the last served as a control. Our results have shown that both mental training types improve the above cited criteria in athletes. However, the effects were much more pronounced with sophrological treatment. We conclude that monology and sophrology can be two effective methods for optimizing the attention and retention levels in Tunisian male kick boxers but the latter is more effective.