Magdalena Gil

Inactivation of cystathionine β-synthase with peroxynitrite

Cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) is a homocysteine metabolizing enzyme that contains pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) and a six-coordinate heme cofactor of unknown function. CBS was inactivated by peroxynitrite, the product of nitric oxide and superoxide radicals. The IC(50) was approximately 150microM for 5microM ferric CBS. Stopped-flow kinetics and competition experiments showed a direct reaction with a second-order rate constant of (2.4-5.0)x10(4)M(-1)s(-1) (pH 7.4, 37 degrees C). The radicals derived from peroxynitrite, nitrogen dioxide and carbonate radical, also inactivated CBS. Exposure to peroxynitrite did not modify bound PLP but led to nitration of Trp208, Trp43 and Tyr223 and alterations in the heme environment including loss of thiolate coordination, conversion to high-spin and bleaching, with no detectable formation of oxo-ferryl compounds nor promotion of one-electron processes. This study demonstrates the susceptibility of CBS to reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, with potential relevance to hyperhomocysteinemia, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.

Nitration transforms a sensitive peroxiredoxin 2 into a more active and robust peroxidase.

Background: Peroxiredoxin 2 (Prx2) reduces peroxides through a cysteine-dependent mechanism and is susceptible to overoxidation of its reactive cysteine during catalysis. Results: Nitration rendered a more active peroxidase, less sensitive to overoxidation. Conclusion: Nitration of Prx2 favors disulfide bond formation over overoxidation. Significance: Understanding the mechanisms by which post-translational modifications modify Prx2 functionality in vitro is crucial to evaluate potential in vivo consequences for redox signaling. Peroxiredoxins (Prx) are efficient thiol-dependent peroxidases and key players in the mechanism of H2O2-induced redox signaling. Any structural change that could affect their redox state, oligomeric structure, and/or interaction with other proteins could have a significant impact on the cascade of signaling events. Several post-translational modifications have been reported to modulate Prx activity. One of these, overoxidation of the peroxidatic cysteine to the sulfinic derivative, inactivates the enzyme and has been proposed as a mechanism of H2O2 accumulation in redox signaling (the floodgate hypothesis). Nitration of Prx has been reported in vitro as well as in vivo; in particular, nitrated Prx2 was identified in brains of Alzheimer disease patients. In this work we characterize Prx2 tyrosine nitration, a post-translational modification on a noncatalytic residue that increases its peroxidase activity and its resistance to overoxidation. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed that treatment of disulfide-oxidized Prx2 with excess peroxynitrite renders mainly mononitrated and dinitrated species. Tyrosine 193 of the YF motif at the C terminus, associated with the susceptibility toward overoxidation of eukaryotic Prx, was identified as nitrated and is most likely responsible for the protection of the peroxidatic cysteine against oxidative inactivation. Kinetic analyses suggest that tyrosine nitration facilitates the intermolecular disulfide formation, transforming a sensitive Prx into a robust one. Thus, tyrosine nitration appears as another mechanism to modulate these enzymes in the complex network of redox signaling.

Inhibition of Mycobacterium tuberculosis PknG by non-catalytic rubredoxin domain specific modification: reaction of an electrophilic nitro-fatty acid with the Fe–S center

PknG from Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a Ser/Thr protein kinase that regulates key metabolic processes within the bacterial cell as well as signaling pathways from the infected host cell. This multidomain protein has a conserved canonical kinase domain with N- and C-terminal flanking regions of unclear functional roles. The N-terminus harbors a rubredoxin-like domain (Rbx), a bacterial protein module characterized by an iron ion coordinated by four cysteine residues. Disruption of the Rbx-metal binding site by simultaneous mutations of all the key cysteine residues significantly impairs PknG activity. This encouraged us to evaluate the effect of a nitro-fatty acid (9- and 10-nitro-octadeca-9-cis-enoic acid; OA-NO2) on PknG activity. Fatty acid nitroalkenes are electrophilic species produced during inflammation and metabolism that react with nucleophilic residues of target proteins (i.e., Cys and His), modulating protein function and subcellular distribution in a reversible manner. Here, we show that OA-NO2 inhibits kinase activity by covalently adducting PknG remote from the catalytic domain. Mass spectrometry-based analysis established that cysteines located at Rbx are the specific targets of the nitroalkene. Cys-nitroalkylation is a Michael addition reaction typically reverted by thiols. However, the reversible OA-NO2-mediated nitroalkylation of the kinase results in an irreversible inhibition of PknG. Cys adduction by OA-NO2 induced iron release from the Rbx domain, revealing a new strategy for the specific inhibition of PknG. These results affirm the relevance of the Rbx domain as a target for PknG inhibition and support that electrophilic lipid reactions of Rbx-Cys may represent a new drug strategy for specific PknG inhibition.

Molecular Basis of the Activity and the Regulation of the Eukaryotic-like S/T Protein Kinase PknG from Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis remains one of the worlds deadliest human diseases, with a high prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) strains. A molecular understanding of processes underlying regulation and adaptation of bacterial physiology may provide novel avenues for the development of antibiotics with unconventional modes of action. Here, we focus on the multidomain S/T protein kinase PknG, a soluble enzyme that controls central metabolism in Actinobacteria and has been linked to Mtb infectivity. Our biochemical and structural studies reveal how different motifs and domains flanking the catalytic core regulate substrate selectivity without significantly affecting the intrinsic kinase activity, whereas a rubredoxin-like domain is shown to downregulate catalysis through specific intramolecular interactions that modulate access to a profound substrate-binding site. Our findings provide the basis for the selective and specific inhibition of PknG, and open new questions about regulation of related bacterial and eukaryotic protein kinases.

S100-A9 protein in exosomes from chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells promotes NF-κB activity during disease progression

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is an incurable disease characterized by accumulation of clonal B lymphocytes, resulting from a complex balance between cell proliferation and apoptotic death. Continuous crosstalk between cancer cells and local/distant host environment is required for effective tumor growth. Among the main actors of this dynamic interplay between tumoral cells and their microenvironment are the nano-sized vesicles called exosomes. Emerging evidence indicates that secretion, composition, and functional capacity of exosomes are altered as tumors progress to an aggressive phenotype. In CLL, no data exist exploring the specific changes in the proteomic profile of plasma-derived exosomes from patients during disease evolution. We hereby report for the first time different proteomic profiles of plasma exosomes, both between indolent and progressive CLLs as well as within the individual patients at the onset of disease and during its progression. Next, we focus on the changes of the exosome protein cargoes, which are found exclusively in patients with progressive CLL after disease progression. The alterations in the proteomic cargoes underline different networks specific for leukemia progression related to inflammation, oxidative stress, and NF-κB and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT pathway activation. Finally, our results suggest a preponderant role for the protein S100-A9 as an activator of the NFκB pathway during CLL progression and suggest that the leukemic clone can generate an autoactivation loop through S100-A9 expression, NF-κB activation, and exosome secretion. Collectively, our data propose a new pathway for NF-κB activation in CLL and highlight the importance of exosomes as extracellular mediators promoting tumor progression in CLL.

New potential eukaryotic substrates of the mycobacterial protein tyrosine phosphatase PtpA: hints of a bacterial modulation of macrophage bioenergetics state

The bacterial protein tyrosine phosphatase PtpA is a key virulence factor released by Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the cytosol of infected macrophages. So far only two unrelated macrophage components (VPS33B, GSK3α) have been identified as PtpA substrates. As tyrosine phosphatases are capable of using multiple substrates, we developed an improved methodology to pull down novel PtpA substrates from an enriched P-Y macrophage extract using the mutant PtpA D126A. This methodology reduced non-specific protein interactions allowing the identification of four novel putative PtpA substrates by MALDI-TOF-MS and nano LC-MS: three mitochondrial proteins - the trifunctional enzyme (TFP), the ATP synthase, and the sulfide quinone oxidoreductase - and the cytosolic 6-phosphofructokinase. All these proteins play a relevant role in cell energy metabolism. Using surface plasmon resonance, PtpA was found to bind immunopurified human TFP through its catalytic site since TFP-PtpA association was inhibited by a specific phosphatase inhibitor. Moreover, PtpA wt was capable of dephosphorylating immunopurified human TFP in vitro supporting that TFP may be a bona fide PtpA susbtrate. Overall, these results suggest a novel scenario where PtpA-mediated dephosphorylation may affect pathways involved in cell energy metabolism, particularly the beta oxidation of fatty acids through modulation of TFP activity and/or cell distribution.

Characterisation of Antigen B Protein Species Present in the Hydatid Cyst Fluid of Echinococcus canadensis G7 Genotype.

The larva of cestodes belonging to the Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) complex causes cystic echinococcosis (CE). It is a globally distributed zoonosis with significant economic and public health impact. The most immunogenic and specific Echinococcus-genus antigen for human CE diagnosis is antigen B (AgB), an abundant lipoprotein of the hydatid cyst fluid (HF). The AgB protein moiety (apolipoprotein) is encoded by five genes (AgB1-AgB5), which generate mature 8 kDa proteins (AgB8/1-AgB8/5). These genes seem to be differentially expressed among Echinococcus species. Since AgB immunogenicity lies on its protein moiety, differences in AgB expression within E. granulosus s.l. complex might have diagnostic and epidemiological relevance for discriminating the contribution of distinct species to human CE. Interestingly, AgB2 was proposed as a pseudogene in E. canadensis, which is the second most common cause of human CE, but proteomic studies for verifying it have not been performed yet. Herein, we analysed the protein and lipid composition of AgB obtained from fertile HF of swine origin (E. canadensis G7 genotype). AgB apolipoproteins were identified and quantified using mass spectrometry tools. Results showed that AgB8/1 was the major protein component, representing 71% of total AgB apolipoproteins, followed by AgB8/4 (15.5%), AgB8/3 (13.2%) and AgB8/5 (0.3%). AgB8/2 was not detected. As a methodological control, a parallel analysis detected all AgB apolipoproteins in bovine fertile HF (G1/3/5 genotypes). Overall, E. canadensis AgB comprised mostly AgB8/1 together with a heterogeneous mixture of lipids, and AgB8/2 was not detected despite using high sensitivity proteomic techniques. This endorses genomic data supporting that AgB2 behaves as a pseudogene in G7 genotype. Since recombinant AgB8/2 has been found to be diagnostically valuable for human CE, our findings indicate that its use as antigen in immunoassays could contribute to false negative results in areas where E. canadensis circulates. Furthermore, the presence of anti-AgB8/2 antibodies in serum may represent a useful parameter to rule out E. canadensis infection when human CE is diagnosed.

The EAL-domain protein FcsR regulates flagella, chemotaxis and type III secretion system in Pseudomonas aeruginosa by a phosphodiesterase independent mechanism

The second messenger c-di-GMP regulates the switch between motile and sessile bacterial lifestyles. A general feature of c-di-GMP metabolism is the presence of a surprisingly large number of genes coding for diguanylate cyclases and phosphodiesterases, the enzymes responsible for its synthesis and degradation respectively. However, the physiological relevance of this apparent redundancy is not clear, emphasizing the need for investigating the functions of each of these enzymes. Here we focused on the phosphodiesterase PA2133 from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an important opportunistic pathogen. We phenotypically characterized P. aeruginosa strain K overexpressing PA2133 or its inactive mutant. We showed that biofilm formation and motility are severely impaired by overexpression of PA2133. Our quantitative proteomic approach applied to the membrane and exoprotein fractions revealed that proteins involved in three processes were mostly affected: flagellar motility, type III secretion system and chemotaxis. While inhibition of biofilm formation can be ascribed to the phosphodiesterase activity of PA2133, down-regulation of flagellar, chemotaxis, and type III secretion system proteins is independent of this enzymatic activity. Based on these unexpected effects of PA2133, we propose to rename this gene product FcsR, for Flagellar, chemotaxis and type III secretion system Regulator.

New substrates and interactors of the mycobacterial Serine/Threonine protein kinase PknG identified by a tailored interactomic approach

PknG from Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a multidomain Serine/Threonine protein kinase that regulates bacterial metabolism as well as the pathogens ability to survive inside the host by still uncertain mechanisms. To uncover PknG interactome we developed an affinity purification-mass spectrometry strategy to stepwise recover PknG substrates and interactors; and to identify those involving PknG autophosphorylated docking sites. We report a confident list of 7 new putative substrates and 66 direct or indirect partners indicating that PknG regulates many physiological processes, such as nitrogen and energy metabolism, cell wall synthesis and protein translation. GarA and the 50S ribosomal protein L13, two previously reported substrates of PknG, were recovered in our interactome. Comparative proteome analyses of wild type and pknG null mutant M. tuberculosis strains provided evidence that two kinase interactors, the FHA-domain containing protein GarA and the enzyme glutamine synthetase, are indeed endogenous substrates of PknG, stressing the role of this kinase in the regulation of nitrogen metabolism. Interestingly, a second FHA protein was identified as a PknG substrate. Our results show that PknG phosphorylates specific residues in both glutamine synthetase and FhaA in vitro, and suggest that these proteins are phosphorylated by PknG in living mycobacteria.

Tracing a fat or sweet lifestyle - New insights on catabolic paths of intracellular Salmonella

Salmonella is found in a large variety of environments including soil and water, as well as in the gut flora of warm-blooded animals. One of the requirements to survive in those diverse milieus is its capacity to adapt its metabolism. Salmonella displays phenotypic heterogeneity, a built-in mechanism devoted to generate variability within isogenic populations at the level of the individual, to cope with an ever changing environment. The ability to achieve such heterogeneity can further be considered as dynamic source to drive diversity that benefits bacterial populations inasmuch as variant subpopulations could adapt more efficiently to environmental perturbations and exploit new niches. Combining biochemistry, proteomics, microbial genetics, competitive infections, and computational approaches has allowed the study of phenotypic heterogeneity of bacterial pathogens revealing the versatile adaptation of Salmonella to a complex nutritional landscape in infected host cells. It was found that Salmonella degrades major nutrients as glycerol, fatty acids, N-acetylglucosamine, glucose, lactate, and arginine to nourish itself during the successive stages of infection. Nevertheless, such studies did not yield a resolution at the single host cell or single bacterium level, which would be needed to draw direct conclusions on bacterial heterogeneity. They only allowed the analysis of averaged information of the measured population. Methods that overcome these hurdles are presented in this issue of Virulence by Diacovich et al. who developed a set of fluorescence probes to explore metabolic pathways used by individual Salmonella during macrophage infection focusing on sugar and fatty acid catabolism (Fig. 1A). They fused promoters of key catabolic enzymes and regulators upstream to a mutant of the green fluorescent protein (gfpmut3) that was original developed by Raphael Valdivia for studies of intracellular bacterial pathogens. Such reporters can be analyzed by FACS or microscopy read-outs with the possibility to peer at single infected cells or even at single bacteria. A powerful feature of the presented tools is the possibility to combine fluorescence sensitivity with reporters for distinct metabolic pathways of the sugar and lipid metabolism. Another strength of the fluorescence reporter approach is its adaptability for in vivo experiments and the possibility to scale them via multiplexing for high-throughput screenings followed by high-content analysis. Such usage requires rigorous testing of the read-out robustness to enable automatic computer-assisted analysis. Apart from the novel reporters presented by Diacovich, fluorescent assays have been broadly explored in the context of Salmonella infections to decipher its intracellular trafficking within infected host cells and its communication with distinct host compartments. For example, on the host side it revealed the implication of autophagy during Salmonella invasion, and the precise intracellular localization of the internalized pathogen. On the pathogen side, fluorescent approaches have been used to monitor the growth rates of Salmonella, the expression of the bacterial type 3 secretion system or its capacity to adapt to hostile host environments, such as low pH. The reporters are mostly based on genetically-encoded proteins that can readily be introduced into Salmonella and do not require the addition of other compounds that would render the assays more complicated. Using their newly developed metabolic promoterreporter fusions, the authors described the existence of different subpopulations of Salmonella with differential catabolic behavior either favoring sugars or lipids as carbon source, and they also found that the distribution among these populations changed in response to