Maki Maeda

Mitochondrial fission factor Drp1 is essential for embryonic development and synapse formation in mice

Mitochondrial morphology is dynamically controlled by a balance between fusion and fission. The physiological importance of mitochondrial fission in vertebrates is less clearly defined than that of mitochondrial fusion. Here we show that mice lacking the mitochondrial fission GTPase Drp1 have developmental abnormalities, particularly in the forebrain, and die after embryonic day 12.5. Neural cell-specific (NS) Drp1−/− mice die shortly after birth as a result of brain hypoplasia with apoptosis. Primary culture of NS-Drp1−/− mouse forebrain showed a decreased number of neurites and defective synapse formation, thought to be due to aggregated mitochondria that failed to distribute properly within the cell processes. These defects were reflected by abnormal forebrain development and highlight the importance of Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fission within highly polarized cells such as neurons. Moreover, Drp1−/− murine embryonic fibroblasts and embryonic stem cells revealed that Drp1 is required for a normal rate of cytochrome c release and caspase activation during apoptosis, although mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, as examined by the release of Smac/Diablo and Tim8a, may occur independently of Drp1 activity.

Dynamics of mitochondrial DNA nucleoids regulated by mitochondrial fission is essential for maintenance of homogeneously active mitochondria during neonatal heart development

ABSTRACT Mitochondria are dynamic organelles, and their fusion and fission regulate cellular signaling, development, and mitochondrial homeostasis, including mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) distribution. Cardiac myocytes have a specialized cytoplasmic structure where large mitochondria are aligned into tightly packed myofibril bundles; however, recent studies have revealed that mitochondrial dynamics also plays an important role in the formation and maintenance of cardiomyocytes. Here, we precisely analyzed the role of mitochondrial fission in vivo. The mitochondrial fission GTPase, Drp1, is highly expressed in the developing neonatal heart, and muscle-specific Drp1 knockout (Drp1-KO) mice showed neonatal lethality due to dilated cardiomyopathy. The Drp1 ablation in heart and primary cultured cardiomyocytes resulted in severe mtDNA nucleoid clustering and led to mosaic deficiency of mitochondrial respiration. The functional and structural alteration of mitochondria also led to immature myofibril assembly and defective cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Thus, the dynamics of mtDNA nucleoids regulated by mitochondrial fission is required for neonatal cardiomyocyte development by promoting homogeneous distribution of active mitochondria throughout the cardiomyocytes.

Identification of Mammalian TOM22 as a Subunit of the Preprotein Translocase of the Mitochondrial Outer Membrane

A mitochondrial outer membrane protein of ∼22 kDa (1C9-2) was purified from Vero cells assessing immunoreactivity with a monoclonal antibody, and the cDNA was cloned based on the partial amino acid sequence of the trypsin-digested fragments. 1C9-2 had 19–20% sequence identity to fungal Tom22, a component of the preprotein translocase of the outer membrane (the TOM complex) with receptor and organizer functions. Despite such a low sequence identity, both shared a remarkable structural similarity in the hydrophobicity profile, membrane topology in the Ncyt-Cin orientation through a transmembrane domain in the middle of the molecule, and the abundant acidic amino acid residues in the N-terminal domain. The antibodies against 1C9-2 inhibited the import of a matrix-targeted preprotein into isolated mitochondria. Blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of digitonin-solubilized outer membranes revealed that 1C9-2 is firmly associated with TOM40 in the ∼400-kDa complex, with a size and composition similar to those of the fungal TOM core complex. Furthermore, 1C9-2 complemented the defects of growth and mitochondrial protein import in Δtom22 yeast cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate that 1C9-2 is a functional homologue of fungal Tom22 and functions as a component of the TOM complex.

Membrane-embedded C-terminal Segment of Rat Mitochondrial TOM40 Constitutes Protein-conducting Pore with Enriched β-Structure

TOM40 is the central component of the preprotein translocase of the mitochondrial outer membrane (TOM complex). We purified recombinant rat TOM40 (rTOM40), which was refolded in Brij35 after solubilization from inclusion bodies by guanidine HCl. rTOM40 (i) consisted of a 63% β-sheet structure and (ii) bound a matrix-targeted preprotein with high affinity and partially translocated it into the rTOM40 pore. This partial translocation was inhibited by stabilization of the mature domain of the precursor. (iii) rTOM40 bound preprotein initially through ionic interactions, followed by salt-resistant non-ionic interactions, and (iv) exhibited presequence-sensitive, cation-specific channel activity in reconstituted liposomes. Based on the domain structure of rTOM40 deduced by protease treatment, we purified the elastase-resistant and membrane-embedded C-terminal segment (rTOM40(ΔN165)) as a recombinant protein with 62% β-structure that exhibited properties comparable with those of full-size rTOM40. We concluded that the membrane-embedded C-terminal half of rTOM40 constitutes the preprotein recognition domain with an enriched β-structure, which forms the preprotein conducting pore containing a salt-sensitive cis-binding site and a salt-resistant trans-binding site.

Role for Gingipains in Porphyromonas gingivalis Traffic to Phagolysosomes and Survival in Human Aortic Endothelial Cells

ABSTRACT Gingipains are cysteine proteinases that are responsible for the virulence of Porphyromonas gingivalis. Recent studies have shown that P. gingivalis is trapped within autophagic compartments of infected cells, where it promotes survival. In this study we investigated the role of gingipains in the intracellular trafficking and survival of this bacterium in human aortic endothelial cells and any possible involvement of these enzymes in the autophagic pathway. Although autophagic events were enhanced by infection with either wild-type (WT) P. gingivalis strains (ATCC 33277, 381, and W83) or an ATCC 33277 mutant lacking gingipains (KDP136), we have found that more than 90% of intracellular WT and KDP136 colocalized with cathepsin B, a lysosome marker, and only a few of the internalized cells colocalized with LC3, an autophagosome marker, during the 0.5- to 4-h postinfection period. This was further substantiated by immunogold electron microscopic analyses, thus implying that P. gingivalis evades the autophagic pathway and instead directly traffics to the endocytic pathway to lysosomes. At the late stages after infection, WT strains in phagolysosomes retained their double-membrane structures. KDP136 in these compartments, however, lost its double-membrane structures, representing a characteristic feature of its vulnerability to rupture. Together with the ultrastructural observations, we found that the number of intracellular viable WT cells decreased more slowly than that of KDP136 cells, thus suggesting that gingipains contribute to bacterial survival, but not to trafficking, within the infected cells.

Mitochondrial Fission Factor Drp1 Maintains Oocyte Quality via Dynamic Rearrangement of Multiple Organelles

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that change their morphology by active fusion and fission in response to cellular signaling and differentiation. The in vivo role of mitochondrial fission in mammals has been examined by using tissue-specific knockout (KO) mice of the mitochondria fission-regulating GTPase Drp1, as well as analyzing a human patient harboring a point mutation in Drp1, showing that Drp1 is essential for embryonic and neonatal development and neuronal function. During oocyte maturation and aging, structures of various membrane organelles including mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are changed dynamically, and their organelle aggregation is related to germ cell formation and epigenetic regulation. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of organelle dynamics during the development and aging of oocytes have not been well understood. Here, we analyzed oocyte-specific mitochondrial fission factor Drp1-deficient mice and found that mitochondrial fission is essential for follicular maturation and ovulation in an age-dependent manner. Mitochondria were highly aggregated with other organelles, such as the ER and secretory vesicles, in KO oocyte, which resulted in impaired Ca(2+) signaling, intercellular communication via secretion, and meiotic resumption. We further found that oocytes from aged mice displayed reduced Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fission and defective organelle morphogenesis, similar to Drp1 KO oocytes. On the basis of these findings, it appears that mitochondrial fission maintains the competency of oocytes via multiorganelle rearrangement.

Distinct types of protease systems are involved in homeostasis regulation of mitochondrial morphology via balanced fusion and fission.

Mitochondrial morphology is dynamically regulated by fusion and fission. Several GTPase proteins control fusion and fission, and posttranslational modifications of these proteins are important for the regulation. However, it has not been clarified how the fusion and fission is balanced. Here, we report the molecular mechanism to regulate mitochondrial morphology in mammalian cells. Ablation of the mitochondrial fission, by repression of Drp1 or Mff, or by over‐expression of MiD49 or MiD51, results in a reduction in the fusion GTPase mitofusins (Mfn1 and Mfn2) in outer membrane and long form of OPA1 (L‐OPA1) in inner membrane. RNAi‐ or CRISPR‐induced ablation of Drp1 in HeLa cells enhanced the degradation of Mfns via the ubiquitin‐proteasome system (UPS). We further found that UPS‐related protein BAT3/BAG6, here we identified as Mfn2‐interacting protein, was implicated in the turnover of Mfns in the absence of mitochondrial fission. Ablation of the mitochondrial fission also enhanced the proteolytic cleavage of L‐OPA1 to soluble S‐OPA1, and the OPA1 processing was reversed by inhibition of the inner membrane protease OMA1 independent on the mitochondrial membrane potential. Our findings showed that the distinct degradation systems of the mitochondrial fusion proteins in different locations are enhanced in response to the mitochondrial morphology.

Ribosomal protein L31 in Escherichia coli contributes to ribosome subunit association and translation, whereas short L31 cleaved by protease 7 reduces both activities

Ribosomes routinely prepared from Escherichia coli strain K12 contain intact (70 amino acids) and short (62 amino acids) forms of ribosomal protein L31. By contrast, ribosomes prepared from ompT mutant cells, which lack protease 7, contain only intact L31, suggesting that L31 is cleaved by protease 7 during ribosome preparation. We compared ribosomal subunit association in wild‐type and ompT − strains. In sucrose density gradient centrifugation under low Mg2+, 70S content was very high in ompT − ribosomes, but decreased in the wild‐type ribosomes containing short L31. In addition, ribosomes lacking L31 failed to associate ribosomal subunits in low Mg2+. Therefore, intact L31 is required for subunit association, and the eight C‐terminal amino acids contribute to the association function. In vitro translation was assayed using three different systems. Translational activities of ribosomes lacking L31 were 40% lower than those of ompT − ribosomes with one copy of intact L31, indicating that L31 is involved in translation. Moreover, in the stationary phase, L31 was necessary for 100S formation. The strain lacking L31 grew very slowly. A structural analysis predicted that the L31 protein spans the 30S and 50S subunits, consistent with the functions of L31 in 70S association, 100S formation, and translation.

Cell-free mitochondrial fusion assay detected by specific protease reaction revealed Ca2+ as regulator of mitofusin-dependent mitochondrial fusion

Mitochondrial dynamic by frequent fusion and fission have important roles in various cellular signalling processes and pathophysiology in vivo. However, the molecular mechanisms that regulate mitochondrial fusion, especially in mammalian cells, are not well understood. Accordingly, we developed a novel biochemical cell-free mitochondrial fusion assay system using isolated human mitochondria. We used a protease and its specific substrate that are essential for yeast autophagy; Atg4 protease is required for maturation and the de-conjugation of the ubiquitin-like modifier Atg8. Atg4-FLAG and Atg8-GFP were separately expressed in the mitochondrial matrix of HeLa cells. Isolated mitochondria were then mixed and packed in the presence of energy regeneration mix. Immunoblotting with an anti-GFP antibody revealed Atg8 processing, suggesting that the double membranes of isolated mitochondria were indeed fused. The mitochondrial fusion reaction required GTP hydrolysis, mitochondrial membrane potential and intact outer membrane proteins containing two mitofusin isoforms. Using this assay, we searched for stimulators of mitochondrial fusion and found that rabbit reticulocyte lysate and Ca2+ chelator EGTA stimulate mitochondrial fusion. This novel cell-free assay system using isolated human mitochondria is simple, sensitive and reproducible; thus, it is useful for screening proteins and molecules that modulate mitochondrial fusion.