Małgorzata Swadźba-Kwaśny

New catanionic surfactants based on 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium alkylsulfonates, [CnH2n+1mim][CmH2m+1SO3]: mesomorphism and aggregation

Anionic and cationic alkyl-chain effects on the self-aggregation of both neat and aqueous solutions of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium alkylsulfonate salts ([C(n)H(2n+1)mim][C(m)H(2m+1)SO(3)]; n = 8, 10 or 12; m = 1 and n = 4 or 8; m = 4 or 8) have been investigated. Some of these salts constitute a novel family of pure catanionic surfactants in aqueous solution. Examples of this class of materials are rare; they are distinct from both mixed cationic-anionic surfactants (obtained by mixing two salts) and gemini surfactants (with two or more amphiphilic groups bound by a covalent linker). Fluorescence spectroscopy and interfacial tension measurements have been used to determine critical micelle concentrations (CMCs), surface activity, and to compare the effects of the alkyl-substitution patterns in both the cation and anion on the surfactant properties of these salts. With relatively small methylsulfonate anions (n = 8, 10 and 12, m = 1), the salts behave as conventional single chain cationic surfactants, showing a decrease of the CMC upon increase of the alkyl chain length (n) in the cation. When the amphiphilic character is present in both the cation and anion (n = 4 and 8, m = 4 and 8), novel catanionic surfactants with CMC values lower than those of the corresponding cationic analogues, and which exhibited an unanticipated enhanced reduction of surface tension, were obtained. In addition, the thermotropic phase behaviour of [C(8)H(18)mim][C(8)H(18)SO(3)] (n = m = 8) was investigated using variable temperature X-ray scattering, polarising optical microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry; formation of a smectic liquid crystalline phase with a broad temperature range was observed.

1-Alkyl-3-methylimidazolium alkanesulfonate ionic liquids, [CnH2n+1mim][CkH2k+1SO3]: synthesis and physicochemical properties

A set of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium alkanesulfonate ionic liquids, [C(n)mim][C(k)SO(3)], formed by the variation of the alkyl chain lengths both in the cation and the anion (n = 1-6, 8, or 10; k = 1-4, or 6), was synthesised, with sixteen of them being novel. The ionic liquids were characterised by (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry. Their viscosities and densities as a function of temperature, as well as melting points and decomposition temperatures, were determined. The molecular volumes, both experimental and calculated, were found to depend linearly on the sum (n + k).

Chlorometallate(III) ionic liquids as Lewis acidic catalysts - a quantitative study of acceptor properties

The Gutmann Acceptor Number (AN), which is a quantitative measure of Lewis acidity, has been estimated using the (31)P NMR chemical shift of a probe molecule, triethylphosphine oxide, for a range of chlorometallate(III) ionic liquids, based on Group 13 metals (aluminium(III), gallium(III) and indium(III)) and the 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium cation, at different compositions. The results were interpreted in terms of extant speciation studies of chlorometallate(III) ionic liquids, and compared with a range of standard molecular solvents and acids. The value of these data were illustrated in terms of the selection of appropriate ionic liquids for specific applications.

Chlorostannate(II) Ionic Liquids: Speciation, Lewis Acidity, and Oxidative Stability

The anionic speciation of chlorostannate(II) ionic liquids, prepared by mixing 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride and tin(II) chloride in various molar ratios, χ(SnCl2), was investigated in both solid and liquid states. The room temperature ionic liquids were investigated by (119)Sn NMR spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and viscometry. Crystalline samples were studied using Raman spectroscopy, single-crystal X-ray crystallography, and differential scanning calorimetry. Both liquid and solid systems (crystallized from the melt) contained [SnCl(3)](-) in equilibrium with Cl(-) when χ(SnCl(2)) < 0.50, [SnCl(3)](-) in equilibrium with [Sn(2)Cl(5)](-) when χ(SnCl(2)) > 0.50, and only [SnCl(3)](-) when χ(SnCl(2)) = 0.50. Tin(II) chloride was found to precipitate when χ(SnCl(2)) > 0.63. No evidence was detected for the existence of [SnCl(4)](2-) across the entire range of χ(SnCl(2)), although such anions have been reported in the literature for chlorostannate(II) organic salts crystallized from organic solvents. Furthermore, the Lewis acidity of the chlorostannate(II)-based systems, expressed by their Gutmann acceptor number, has been determined as a function of the composition, χ(SnCl(2)), to reveal Lewis acidity for χ(SnCl(2)) > 0.50 samples comparable to the analogous systems based on zinc(II). A change of the Lewis basicity of the anion was estimated using (1)H NMR spectroscopy, by comparison of the measured chemical shifts of the C-2 hydrogen in the imidazolium ring. Finally, compositions containing free chloride anions (χ(SnCl(2)) < 0.50) were found to oxidize slowly in air to form a chlorostannate(IV) ionic liquid containing the [SnCl(6)](2-) anion.

Speciation of chloroindate(III) ionic liquids

A range of chloroindate(iii) ionic liquid systems was prepared by mixing of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride with indium(iii) chloride in various ratios, expressed as the mol fraction of indium(iii) chloride, chi(InCl(3)). For chi(InCl(3))</= 0.50, the products were liquids, whereas for chi(InCl(3)) > 0.50, the products were biphasic (suspensions of a solid in an ionic liquid). Speciation of these chloroindate(iii) systems was carried out using a wide range of techniques: differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarised optical microscopy (POM), liquid-state and solid-state (115)In NMR spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS). Ionic liquids prepared using an excess of the organic chloride (chi(InCl(3)) < 0.5) contained [InCl(6)](3-), [InCl(5)](2-) and [InCl(4)](-) anions, in proportions dependent on the chi(InCl(3)) value. Equimolar mixtures yielded single compounds: 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrachloroindates(iii). Systems containing an excess of indium(iii) chloride (chi(InCl(3)) > 0.5) contained indium(iii) chloride powder suspended in a neutral tetrachloroindate ionic liquid.

Facile in situ synthesis of nanofluids based on ionic liquids and copper oxide clusters and nanoparticles

Two stable nanofluids comprising of mixed valent copper(I,II) oxide clusters (<1 nm) suspended in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate, [C(4)mim][OAc], and copper(II) oxide nanoparticles (<50 nm) suspended in trioctyl(dodecyl)phosphonium acetate, [P(8 8 8 12)][OAc], were synthesised in a facile one-pot reaction from solutions of copper(II) acetate hydrate in the corresponding ionic liquids. Formation of the nanostructures was studied using (13)C NMR spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). From a solution of Cu(OAc)(2) in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate, [C(2)mim][OAc], crystals were obtained that revealed the structure of [C(2)mim][Cu(3)(OAc)(5)(OH)(2)(H(2)O)]·H(2)O, indicating the formation of copper hydroxo-clusters in the course of the reaction. Synthesised nanostructures were studied using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Physical properties of the prepared IL-nanofluids were examined using IR and UV-VIS spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and densitometry.

Phosphine oxide functionalised imidazolium ionic liquids as tuneable ligands for lanthanide complexation

A series of novel, phosphine oxide functionalised ionic liquids have been synthesised and their application as tuneable lanthanide complexing agents is demonstrated.

Tailoring ionic liquid catalysts: structure, acidity and catalytic activity of protonic ionic liquids based on anionic clusters, [(HSO4)(H2SO4)x]− (x = 0, 1, or 2)

Aiming at inexpensive Bronsted-acidic ionic liquids, suitable for industrial-scale catalysis, a family of protonic ionic liquids based on nitrogen bases and sulfuric acid has been developed. Variation of the molar ratio of sulfuric acid, χH2SO4, was used to tune acidity. The liquid structure was studied using 1H NMR and IR spectroscopies, revealing the existence of hydrogen-bonded clusters, [(HSO4)(H2SO4)]−, for χH2SO4 > 0.50. Acidity, quantified by Gutmann Acceptor Number (AN), was found to be closely related to the liquid structure. The ionic liquids were employed as acid catalysts in a model reaction; Fischer esterification of acetic acid with 1-butanol. The reaction rate depended on two factors; for χH2SO4 > 0.50, the key parameter was acidity (expressed as AN value), while for χH2SO4 > 0.50 it was the mass transport (solubility of starting materials in the ionic liquid phase). Building on this insight, the ionic liquid catalyst and reaction conditions have been chosen. Conversion values of over 95% were achieved under exceptionally mild conditions, and using an inexpensive ionic liquid, which could be recycled up to eight times without diminution in conversion or selectivity. It has been demonstrated how structural studies can underpin rational design and development of an ionic liquid catalyst, and in turn lead to a both greener and economically viable process.

Speciation of Chlorometallate Ionic Liquids Based on Gallium(III) and Indium(III)

A range of ionic liquids was prepared by mixing 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride with gallium(iii) chloride or indium(iii) chloride in various ratios, producing both acidic and basic compositions. Their speciation was investigated using 71Ga NMR or 115In NMR spectroscopy, as well as extended X-ray absorption fine structure. Polynuclear Lewis acidic anions, [MxCl3x+1]–, were found in chlorogallate(iii) ionic liquids, but not in chloroindate(iii) systems.

Lead(II) chloride ionic liquids and organic/inorganic hybrid materials - a study of chloroplumbate(II) speciation

A range of chloroplumbate(II) organic salts, based on the two cations, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium and trihexyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium, was prepared by ionothermal synthesis. Depending on the structure of the organic cation and on the molar ratio of PbCl2 in the product, χPbCl2, the salts were room-temperature ionic liquids or crystalline organic/inorganic hybrid materials. The solids were studied using Raman spectroscopy; the crystal structure of [C2mim]{PbCl3} was determined and shown to contain 1D infinite chloroplumbate(II) strands formed by edge-sharing tetragonal pyramids of pentacoordinate (PbCl5) units. The liquids were analysed using (207)Pb NMR and Raman spectroscopies, as well as viscometry. Phase diagrams were constructed based on differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements. Discrete anions: [PbCl4](2-) and [PbCl3](-), were detected in the liquid state. The trichloroplumbate(II) anion was shown to have a flexible structure due to the presence of a stereochemically-active lone pair. The relationship between the liquid phase anionic speciation and the structure of the corresponding crystalline products of ionothermal syntheses was discussed, and the data were compared with analogous tin(II) systems.