Manas Seal

Alzheimer’s Disease: A Heme–Aβ Perspective

Redox active iron is utilized in biology for various electron transfer and catalytic reactions essential for life, yet this same chemistry mediates the formation of partially reduced oxygen species (PROS). Oxidative stress derived from the iron accumulated in the amyloid plaques originating from amyloid β (Aβ) peptides and neurofibrillary tangles derived from hyperphosphorylated tau proteins has been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease (AD). Altered heme homeostasis leading to dysregulation of expression of heme proteins and heme deposits in the amyloid plaques are characteristic of the AD brain. However, the pathogenic significance of heme in neurodegeneration in AD has been unappreciated due to the lack of detailed understanding of the chemistry of the interaction of heme and Aβ peptides. As a result, the biochemistry and biophysics of heme complexes of Aβ peptides (heme-Aβ) remained largely unexplored. In this Account, we discuss the active site environment of heme bound Aβ complexes, which involves three amino acid residues unique in mammalian Aβ (Arg5, Tyr10, and His13) and missing in Aβ from rodents, which do not get affected by AD. The histidine residue binds heme, while the arginine and the tyrosine act as key second sphere residues of the heme-Aβ active site that play a crucial role in its reactivity. Generation of PROS, enhanced peroxidase activity, and oxidation of neurotransmitters such as serotonin (5-HT) are all found to be catalyzed by heme-Aβ in in vitro assays, and these reactivities can potentially be linked to the observed neuropathologies in AD brain. Association of Cu with heme-Aβ leads to the formation of heme-Cu-Aβ. The heme-Cu-Aβ complex produces a greater amount of PROS than reduced heme-Aβ or Cu-Aβ alone. Nitric oxide (NO), a signaling molecule, is found to ameliorate the detrimental effects of heme-Aβ and Cu bound heme-Aβ complexes by detaching heme from the heme-Aβ complex and releasing it into the environment solution. Heme-Aβ complexes show fast electron transfer with oxidized cytochrome c and rapid heme transfer with apomyoglobin and aponeuroglobin. NO, cytochrome c, and apoglobins can all lead to reduction in PROS generated by reduced heme-Aβ. Synthetic analogues of heme, offering a hydrophobic distal environment, have been used to trap oxygen bound intermediates, which provides insight into the mechanism of PROS generation by reduced heme-Aβ. Artificial constructs of Aβ on nonbiological platforms are used not only to stabilize metastable and physiologically relevant large and small amyloid aggregates but also to monitor the interaction of various drug candidates with heme and Cu bound Aβ aggregates, representing a tractable avenue for testing therapeutic agents targeting metals and cofactors in AD.

Kinetics of serotonin oxidation by heme-Aβ relevant to Alzheimer's disease.

Serotonin (5-HT) is an essential neurotransmitter for cognitive functions and formation of new memories. A deficit in 5-HT dependent neuronal activity is somewhat specific for Alzheimer’s disease. Metal-mediated oxidative degradation of neurotransmitters by Aβ bound to metals has been investigated. Heme-bound Aβ is found to catalyze the oxidative degradation of 5-HT leading to the formation of neurotoxic products dihydroxybitryptamine and tyrptamine-4,5-dione. The catalytic degradation of 5-HT is of first order with respect to both heme–Aβ and H2O2, and the maximum rate of 5-HT oxidation is obtained at physiological pH (pH 7–7.5). pH perturbation of the binding affinity of heme–Aβ complex for 5-HT indicates that the binding of the substrate (5-HT) is not the rate-determining step. Arg5 acts as a second-sphere residue facilitating the O–O bond cleavage, the mutation of which leads to a decrease in the rate of 5-HT oxidation. The pull effect of the Arg5 residue tends to facilitate the generation of the active oxidant, Compound I, below neutral pH, while the ionization of the phenol group of the substrate facilitates the generation of the active substrate above neutral pH. A combination of these two opposing effects results in the highest activity at physiological pH. Apart from the Arg5 residue, the Tyr10 residue is found to play a vital role in the 5-HT oxidation by heme–Aβ complexes.

Peroxidase to Cytochrome b Type Transition in the Active Site of Heme-Bound Amyloid β Peptides Relevant to Alzheimer’s Disease

Recent evidence has established the colocalization of amyloid-rich plaques and heme-rich deposits in the human cerebral cortex as a common postmortem feature in Alzheimers disease (AD). The amyloid β (Aβ) peptides have been shown to bind heme, and the resultant heme-Aβ complexes can generate toxic partially reduced oxygen species (PROS) and exhibit peroxidase activity. The heme-Aβ active site exhibits a concentration-dependent equilibrium between a high-spin mono-His-bound species similar to a peroxidase-type active site and a bis-His-bound six-coordinate low-spin species similar to that of a cytochrome b type active site. The ν(Fe-His) (241 cm(-1)) vibration has been identified in the high-spin heme-Aβ active site by resonance Raman spectroscopy. The formation of the low-spin heme-Aβ species is promoted by the His14 and noncoordinating second-sphere Arg5 residues. The high-spin state produces more PROS than the low-spin species. Nonbiological constructs modeling different forms of Aβ (oligomers, fibrils, etc.) suggest that the detrimental high-spin state is likely to dominate under most physiological conditions.

Significantly Enhanced Heme Retention Ability of Myoglobin Engineered to Mimic the Third Covalent Linkage by Nonaxial Histidine to Heme (Vinyl) in Synechocystis Hemoglobin

Background: Unprecedented stability of SynHb may be engineered in other globins. Results: Myoglobin can mimic the covalent linkage between His117 and heme vinyl in SynHb, which dictates stability as expected. Conclusion: I107H mutation in myoglobin significantly enhanced heme retention ability. Significance: The additional covalent linkage engineered in myoglobin provides a novel evolutionary perspective and may help in the design of stable hemoglobin-based blood substitute. Heme proteins, which reversibly bind oxygen and display a particular fold originally identified in myoglobin (Mb), characterize the “hemoglobin (Hb) superfamily.” The long known and widely investigated Hb superfamily, however, has been enriched by the discovery and investigation of new classes and members. Truncated Hbs typify such novel classes and exhibit a distinct two-on-two α-helical fold. The truncated Hb from the freshwater cyanobacterium Synechocystis exhibits hexacoordinate heme chemistry and bears an unusual covalent bond between the nonaxial His117 and a heme porphyrin 2-vinyl atom, which remains tightly associated with the globin unlike any other. It seems to be the most stable Hb known to date, and His117 is the dominant force holding the heme. Mutations of amino acid residues in the vicinity did not influence this covalent linkage. Introduction of a nonaxial His into sperm whale Mb at the topologically equivalent position and in close proximity to vinyl group significantly increased the heme stability of this prototype globin. Reversed phase chromatography, electrospray ionization-MS, and MALDI-TOF analyses confirmed the presence of covalent linkage in Mb I107H. The Mb mutant with the engineered covalent linkage was stable to denaturants and exhibited ligand binding and auto-oxidation rates similar to the wild type protein. This indeed is a novel finding and provides a new perspective to the evolution of Hbs. The successful attempt at engineering heme stability holds promise for the production of stable Hb-based blood substitute.

Cytochrome c peroxidase activity of heme bound amyloid β peptides

Heme bound amyloid β (Aβ) peptides, which have been associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), can catalytically oxidize ferrocytochrome c (Cyt c(II)) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The rate of catalytic oxidation of Cyt(II) c has been found to be dependent on several factors, such as concentration of heme(III)-Aβ, Cyt(II) c, H2O2, pH, ionic strength of the solution, and peptide chain length of Aβ. The above features resemble the naturally occurring enzyme cytochrome c peroxidase (CCP) which is known to catalytically oxidize Cyt(II) c in the presence of H2O2. In the absence of heme(III)-Aβ, the oxidation of Cyt(II) c is not catalytic. Thus, heme-Aβ complex behaves as CCP.Graphical abstract

Active-Site Environment of Copper-Bound Human Amylin Relevant to Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2Dm) is characterized by reduced β cell mass and amyloid deposits of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) or amylin, a 37 amino acid containing peptide around pancreatic β cells. The interaction of copper (Cu) with amylin and its mutants has been studied in detail using absorption, circular dichroism, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. Cu binds amylin in a 1:1 ratio, and the binding domain lies within the first 19 amino acid residues of the peptide. Depending on the pH of the medium, Cu-amylin shows the formation of five pH-dependent components (component IV at pH 4.0, component III at pH 5.0, component II at pH 6.0, component I at pH 8.0, and another higher pH component above pH 9.0). The terminal amine, His18, and amidates are established as key residues in the peptide that coordinate the Cu center. The physiologically relevant components I and II can generate H2O2, which can possibly account for the enhanced toxicity of amylin in the presence of Cu, causing damage of the β cells of the pancreas via oxidative stress.

Metal Binding to Aβ Peptides Inhibits Interaction with Cytochrome c: Insights from Abiological Constructs

Aβ(1–40) peptide is mutated to introduce cysteine residue to allow formation of organized self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on Au electrodes. Three mutants of this peptide are produced, which vary in the position of the inserted cysteine residue. Fourier transform infrared data on these peptide SAMs show the presence of both α helices and β sheet in these Aβ constructs. These peptide constructs interact with cytochrome c (Cytc), allowing electron transfer between Cytc and the electrode via the Aβ peptides. Binding of metals like Zn2+ or Cu2+ induces changes in the morphologies of these assemblies, making them fold, which inhibits their spontaneous interaction with Cytc.

Fe–oxy adducts of heme–Aβ and heme–hIAPP complexes: intermediates in ROS generation

Iron (Fe) is the most abundant transition metal ion in the human body and its role, in the form of heme, has been implicated in Alzheimers disease (AD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2Dm). Heme binds both amyloid beta (Aβ) and human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) to form heme-Aβ and heme-hIAPP complexes, respectively, and form reactive oxygen species (ROS) like H2O2, O2˙-etc., which are known to cause oxidative damage. However the intermediates involved during ROS formation have not yet been isolated. In this study the oxygen bound intermediates of both heme-Aβ(1-16) and heme-hIAPP(1-19) have been isolated and characterized using absorption, EPR and resonance Raman (rR) spectroscopy. Fe-O stretches have been found at 575 cm-1 and 577 cm-1 for heme-Aβ(1-16) and heme-hIAPP(1-19) respectively. The oxy intermediates are stable at low temperatures. The isolation of the intermediates reveals a mechanistic pathway of ROS generation through the two heme complexes.