Manuel López Granados

Selective Conversion of Furfural to Maleic Anhydride and Furan with VOx/Al2O3 Catalysts

Furfural can be converted into maleic anhydride (73 % yield) through selective gas phase oxidation at 593 K with O(2) by using VO(x)/Al(2)O(3) (10 at(V) nm(-2)) as solid catalysts. The use of lower temperatures and/or O(2) pressures result in the additional formation of furan (maximum 9 % yield). Mechanistically, furfural (C(5)H(4)O(2)) is oxidized stepwise to furan (C(4)H(4)O), 2-furanone (C(4)H(4)O(2)), and finally, maleic anhydride (C(4)H(2)O(3)). The specific structure of the supported vanadium oxides and reaction conditions (temperature and reactants pressures) all influence furfural oxidation catalysis. We have found that Al(2)O(3)-supported polyvanadates are intrinsically more active (2.70 mmol h(-1) g-at V(-1)) than monovanadates (VO(4)) and V(2)O(5) crystals (0.89 and 0.70 mmol h(-1) g-at V(-1), respectively) in maleic anhydride and furan formation rates (553 K, 1.6 kPa furfural, 2.5 kPa O(2)). Our alternative approach enables the use of biomass instead of petroleum to synthesize maleic anhydride and furan from furfural. The potential variety of industrial applications is of enormous interest for the development of future biorefineries.

Deactivation of solid catalysts in liquid media: the case of leaching of active sites in biomass conversion reactions

This review is aimed to be a brief tutorial covering the deactivation of solid catalysts in the liquid phase, with specific focus on leaching, which can be especially helpful to researchers not familiarized with catalytic processes in the liquid phase. Leaching refers to the loss of active species from the solid that are transferred into the liquid medium, causing eventually a deactivation of the catalyst. Intriguingly, not many published studies have dealt with leaching, since this is a specific phenomenon in the liquid phase and heterogeneous catalysis is mainly carried out in gaseous phase. However, as a consequence of the development of new processes for biorefineries, an increasing number of reactions deal with liquid media, and thus, the stability and reusability of a solid catalyst in this situation represent a huge challenge that requires specific attention. Leaching of active phases is particularly problematic because of its irreversibility and it can be one of the main causes of catalyst deactivation in liquid media, threatening the sustainability of the process. This tutorial review presents a survey of the main aspects concerning the deactivation due to leaching of active species from the solid catalyst such as mechanisms, detection methods, impact of these factors on global activity and finally, some procedures to try and minimize the leaching or to cope with it. A decision flowchart is presented to help in the study of catalyst stability and reusability. Interesting biomass conversion reactions have been chosen as examples to illustrate the importance of these aspects.

Catalytic dehydration of xylose to furfural: vanadyl pyrophosphate as source of active soluble species

The acid-catalysed, aqueous phase dehydration of xylose (a monosaccharide obtainable from hemicelluloses, e.g., xylan) to furfural was investigated using vanadium phosphates (VPO) as catalysts: the precursors, VOPO(4)·2H(2)O, VOHPO(4)·0.5H(2)O and VO(H(2)PO(4))(2), and the materials prepared by calcination of these precursors, that is, γ-VOPO(4), (VO)(2)P(2)O(7) and VO(PO(3))(2), respectively. The VPO precursors were completely soluble in the reaction medium. In contrast, the orthorhombic vanadyl pyrophosphate (VO)(2)P(2)O(7), prepared by calcination of VOHPO(4)·0.5H(2)O at 550°C/2 h, could be recycled by simply separating the solid acid from the reaction mixture by centrifugation, and no drop in catalytic activity and furfural yields was observed in consecutive 4 h-batch runs (ca. 53% furfural yield, at 170°C). However, detailed catalytic/characterisation studies revealed that the vanadyl pyrophosphate acts as a source of active water-soluble species in this reaction. For a concentration of (VO)(2)P(2)O(7) as low as 5 mM, the catalytic reaction of xylose (ca. 0.67 M xylose in water, and toluene as solvent for the in situ extraction of furfural) gave ca. 56% furfural yield, at 170°C/6 h reaction.

Poly(styrenesulphonic) acid: an active and reusable acid catalyst soluble in polar solvents

This article reports on the catalytic activity of soluble poly(styrenesulphonic) acid (PSSA) in three different reactions driven by acidic sites: tributyrin methanolysis, biodiesel synthesis and xylose dehydration to furfural. The PSSA catalyst, soluble in the polar media used in these reactions, displayed larger catalytic activity than other non-soluble sulphonic solid catalysts studied (Amberlyst 36, Amberlyst 70 and Nafion®-SAC13). The ultrafiltration of the used PSSA catalyst allowed retention and reutilisation of the catalyst for several runs. No significant decay in catalytic activity was observed for the three reaction repeats investigated. All these results demonstrated that PSSA, a material that can be obtained from polystyrene waste, is an excellent reusable catalyst for conducting reactions demanding acidic sites.

Sorbitol hydrogenolysis to glycols by supported ruthenium catalysts

Abstract Supported Ru catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation to evaluate the role of different oxide supports (Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, ZrO2) in sorbitol hydrogenolysis to glycols. X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, hydrogen chemisorption, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and NH3 temperature-programmed desorption were used to characterize the catalysts, which were active in the hydrogenolysis of sorbitol. The support affected both the physicochemical properties and catalytic behavior of the supported Ru particles. The characterization results revealed that the Ru/Al2O3 catalyst has a high surface acidity, partially oxidized Ru species on the surface, and a higher surface Ru/Al atomic ratio, which gave it the highest selectivity and yield to glycols.

Preparation and characterization of Mg-Zr mixed oxide aerogels and their application as aldol condensation catalysts.

A series of Mg-Zr mixed oxides with different nominal Mg/(Mg+Zr) atomic ratios, namely 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.85, and 1, is prepared by alcogel methodology and fundamental insights into the phases obtained and resulting active sites are studied. Characterization is performed by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, N(2) adsorption-desorption isotherms, and thermal and chemical analysis. Cubic Mg(x)Zr(1-x)O(2-x) solid solution, which results from the dissolution of Mg(2+) cations within the cubic ZrO(2) structure, is the main phase detected for the solids with theoretical Mg/(Mg+Zr) atomic ratio ≤0.4. In contrast, the cubic periclase (c-MgO) phase derived from hydroxynitrates or hydroxy precursors predominates in the solid with Mg/(Mg+Zr)=0.85. c-MgO is also incipiently detected in samples with Mg/(Mg+Zr)=0.2 and 0.4, but in these solids the c-MgO phase mostly arises from the segregation of Mg atoms out of the alcogel-derived c-Mg(x)Zr(1-x)O(2-x) phase during the calcination process, and therefore the species c-MgO and c-Mg(x)Zr(1-x)O(2-x) are in close contact. Regarding the intrinsic activity in furfural-acetone aldol condensation in the aqueous phase, these Mg-O-Zr sites located at the interface between c-Mg(x)Zr(1-x)O(2-x) and segregated c-MgO display a much larger intrinsic activity than the other noninterface sites that are present in these catalysts: Mg-O-Mg sites on c-MgO and Mg-O-Zr sites on c-Mg(x)Zr(1-x)O(2-x). The very active Mg-O-Zr sites rapidly deactivate in the furfural-acetone condensation due to the leaching of active phases, deposition of heavy hydrocarbonaceous compounds, and hydration of the c-MgO phase. Nonetheless, these Mg-Zr materials with very high specific surface areas would be suitable solid catalysts for other relevant reactions catalyzed by strong basic sites in nonaqueous environments.