Marcin Rucinski

Leptin and the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Leptin, the product of the obesity gene (ob) predominantly secreted from adipocytes, plays a major role in the negative control of feeding and acts via a specific receptor (Ob-R), six isoforms of which are known at present. Evidence has been accumulated that leptin, like other peptides involved in the central regulation of food intake, controls the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, acting on both its central and peripheral branches. Leptin, along with Ob-R, is expressed in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, where it modulates corticotropin-releasing hormone and ACTH secretion, probably acting in an autocrine-paracrine manner. Only Ob-R is expressed in the adrenal gland, thereby making it likely that leptin affects it by acting as a circulating hormone. Although in vitro and in vivo findings could suggest a glucocorticoid secretagogue action in the rat, the bulk of evidence indicates that leptin inhibits steroid-hormone secretion from the adrenal cortex. In keeping with this, leptin was found to dampen the HPA axis response to many kinds of stress. In contrast, leptin enhances catecolamine release from the adrenal medulla. This observation suggests that leptin activates the sympathoadrenal axis and does not appear to agree with its above-mentioned antistress action. Leptin and/or Ob-R are also expressed in pituitary and adrenal tumors, but little is known about the role of this cytokine in the pathophysiology.

Ghrelin enhances the growth of cultured human adrenal zona glomerulosa cells by exerting MAPK-mediated proliferogenic and antiapoptotic effects

Ghrelin is an endogenous ligand of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R), two subtypes of which have been identified and named GHS-R1a and GHS-R1b. Evidence has been provided that ghrelin and its receptors are expressed in the adrenal gland, and we have investigated the possible role of the ghrelin system in the functional regulation of the human adrenal cortex. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction detected the expression of both subtypes of GHS-Rs exclusively in the zona glomerulosa (ZG). Ghrelin did not significantly affect either basal or agonist-stimulated aldosterone secretion from cultured ZG cells. In contrast, ghrelin raised proliferative activity and decreased apoptotic deletion rate of ZG cells, the maximal effective concentration being 10(-8) M. The growth effects of 10(-8) M ghrelin on cultured ZG cells were not affected by either the protein kinase (PK)A and PKC antagonists H-89 and calphostin-C or the mitogen-activated PK (MAPK) p38 antagonist SB-293580, but were abolished by both the tyrosine kinase (TK) and MAPK p42/p44 antagonists tyrphostin-23 (10(-5) M) and PD-98059 (10(-4) M), respectively. Ghrelin (10(-8) M) enhanced TK and MAPK p42/p44 activities of ZG cells. Preincubation with 10(-5) M tyrphostin-23 blocked the ghrelin-induced stimulation of both TK and MAPK p42/p44, while preincubation with 10(-4) M PD-98059 only annulled MAPK p42/p44 stimulation. Collectively, our findings allow us to conclude that ghrelin, acting via GHS-Rs exclusively located in the ZG, enhances the growth of human adrenal cortex, through a mechanism involving the activation of the TK-dependent MAPK p42/p44 cascade.

Microarray-based detection and expression analysis of ABC and SLC transporters in drug-resistant ovarian cancer cell lines

Multiple drug resistance of cancer cells is multifactorial. A microarray technique may provide information about new candidate genes playing a role in drug resistance. Drug membrane transporters from ABC and SLC families play a main role in this phenomenon. This study demonstrates alterations in ABC and SLC gene expression levels in methotrexate, cisplatin, doxorubicin, vincristine, topotecan and paclitaxel-resistant variant of W1 ovarian cancer cell line. Resistant W1 cell lines were derived by stepwise selection of cells in increasing concentration of drugs. Affymetrix GeneChip(®) Human Genome U219 Array Strip was used for hybridizations. Statistical significance was determined by independent sample t-test. The genes having altered expression levels in drug-resistant sublines were selected and filtered by scater plot. Genes up/downregulated more than threefolds were selected and listed. Among ABC genes, seven were upregulated and three were downregulated. Three genes: ABCB1, ABCB4 and ABCG2 were upregulated very significantly (over tenfold). One ABCA8 was significantly downregulated. Among 38 SLC genes, 18 were upregulated, 16 were downregulated and four were up- or downregulated dependent on the cell line. Expression of 10 SLC genes was changed very significantly (over tenfold). Four genes were significantly increased: SLC6A1, SLC9A2, SLC12A1, SLC16A6 and six genes were significantly decreased: SLC2A14, SLC7A3, SLC7A8, SLC7A11, SLC16A14, SLC38A9. Based on the expression profiles, our results provide a preliminary insight into the relationship between drug resistance and expression of membrane transporters involved in drug resistance. Correlation of specific drug transporter with drug resistance requires further analysis.

Spexin expression in normal rat tissues.

Spexin is a highly conserved peptide which was recently identified through the bioinformatics approach. Immunohistochemical analysis of its expression has not yet been performed. Thus, in this study, we examined spexin location in a wide range of rat organs by both RT-PCR and IHC. RT-PCR identified spexin mRNA in all tissues examined. Spexin immunoreaction was mainly cytoplasmic. Spexin was immunohistochemically detected, although with different staining intensities, in epithelia and glands of skin and respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. Smooth muscle cells showed weak immunostaining, and connective tissue was negative. In the central nervous system, neuronal groups showed different intensities for reaction product. Immunoreaction was also found in ganglionic cells of both trigeminal and superior cervical ganglia and in photoreceptor, inner nuclear, and ganglionic layers of the retina. In the endocrine system, spexin immunoreaction was detected in the hypothalamic paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei; adenohypophysis, thyroid, and parathyroid glands; adrenal cortex and medulla (mainly ganglionic cells); Leydig cells; and thecal, luteal, and interstitial cells of the ovary. Because of its widespread expression, spexin is probably involved in many different physiological functions; in particular, location of spexin in neurons and endocrine cells suggests its roles as neurotransmitter/neuromodulator and endocrine factor.

Expression of leptin and leptin receptor isoforms in the rat and human carotid body.

Leptin is known to play a role in the modulation of metabolism and control of breathing acting mainly on central nervous structures, although additional actions on peripheral arterial chemoreceptors have also been suggested in the literature. We therefore examined by means of immunohistochemistry the expression of leptin and leptin receptors in the carotid bodies of rats and humans. Leptin expression and relative expression of leptin receptor isoforms were also studied in rats by real-time PCR. No leptin or leptin receptor immunoreactivities were visible in the type II cells of either series. In rat carotid bodies, diffuse positive stainings for leptin and leptin receptors (both with antibody recognizing all receptor isoforms and antibody specific for Ob-Rb) were observed in type I cells. In human carotid bodies, the mean percentage (±standard error) of leptin immunoreactive type I cells was 39.4%±5.1% and the percentages of leptin receptor immunoreactive type I cells were 57.3%±3.9% with antibody recognizing all receptor isoforms and 33.3%±4.2% with antibody specific for isoform Ob-Rb. Double immunofluorescences with anti-tyrosine hydroxylase (type I cell marker) and anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (type II cell markers) confirmed the selective location of leptin and Ob-Rb in type I cells. Real-time PCR showed the expression of leptin and Ob-Ra, Ob-Rb, Ob-Rc and Ob-Rf isoform mRNA in the rat carotid body, levels of expression being Ob-Rf>Ob-Rc>>Ob-Ra>>Ob-Rb. Ob-Re mRNA was not detected. The above findings suggest a role of circulating or locally produced leptin in the regulation of chemoreceptor discharge and/or metabolic sensing function, by means of direct action on type I cells.

Expression of prepro-ghrelin and related receptor genes in the rat adrenal gland and evidences that ghrelin exerts a potent stimulating effect on corticosterone secretion by cultured rat adrenocortical cells

The orexigenic peptide ghrelin (GHREL) and obestatin (OBS) originate from the same peptide precursor, preproghrelin (ppGHREL). Apart from orexigenic effect, GHREL also regulates neuroendocrine function. We investigated GHREL and OBS effects on corticosterone secretion by freshly isolated and cultured rat adrenocortical cells. Classic RT-PCR revealed the presence of ppGHREL, GHS-R1a, GPR39v1 and GPR39v2 and GOAT4 (ghrelin O-acyl transferase) mRNAs in rat adrenals and cultured for 4 days rat adrenocortical cells. Expression of ppGHREL, GHS-R1a, and GOAT genes was notably higher in the cortex than in medulla. High expression level of GOAT gene was found in the zona glomerulosa, while expression level of both GPR39v1 and GPR39v2 genes was similar in adrenal cortical zones and in medulla. In freshly isolated cells neither GHREL nor OBS had an effect on corticosteroid output. Prolonged exposure of cultured cells to GHREL resulted in a potent, comparable to ACTH, stimulating effect of GHREL on corticosterone secretion. Prolonged exposure to OBS was ineffective. Neither GHREL nor OBS had any effect on proliferation of studied cells, while ACTH notably lowered it. GHREL down regulated GHS-R1a gene expression while both ACTH and GHREL stimulated expression level of GPR39v1 gene. Expression of CYP11A1 gene was notably stimulated and that of StAR gene remained unaffected by ACTH or GHREL. Thus, our study is the first to demonstrate direct stimulating effect of GHREL on corticosterone output by cultured rat adrenocortical cells. This stimulating action differs from that evoked by ACTH and is not dependent on the presence of functional ACTH receptor.

Drug transporter expression profiling in chemoresistant variants of the A2780 ovarian cancer cell line

Ovarian cancer is characterized by the higher mortality among gynecological cancers. In results of MDR development during chemotherapy cancer cells become resistant to further treatment. Microarray techniques can provide information about MDR development at gene expression level. ABC and SLC transporters are most important proteins responsible for this phenomenon. In this study changes of ABC and SLC genes expression pattern in drugs resistant sublines of the A2780 ovarian cancer cell line were demonstrated. The cytostatic resistant sublines were generated by culture of A2780 cell line with an increasing concentration of the indicated drugs. As screening methods, we used Affymetrix U219 Human Genome microarrays. Independent t-tests were used to determinate statistical significances of results. Genes that expression levels were higher than assumed threshold (upregulated above threefold and downregulated under -3 fold) were visualized using scatter plot method, selected and listed in table. Between the ABC genes increased expression of seven genes and decreased expression of three genes were observed. Expression of two genes was increased or decreased depending on the cell line. We observed significant (more than tenfold) increase in expression of four ABC genes: ABCA8, ABCB1, ABCB4 and ABCG2 and decreased expression of ABCA3 gene. We also observed changes in expression of 32 SLC genes. Between them we observe increased expression of 17 genes and decreased expression of 15 genes. Expression of four genes was increased or decreased dependent on cell line. The expression of nine SLC genes increased or decreased very significantly (more than tenfold). Five genes were significantly upregulated: SLC2A9, SLC16A3, SLC16A14, SLC38A4 and SLC39A8. Four additional genes were significantly downregulated: SLC2A14, SLC6A15, SLC8A1 and SLC27A2. Expression profiles of these genes give strong arguments for assumption of correlation between expression of ABC and SLC genes and drug resistance phenomenon. Identifying correlations between specific drug transporters and cytostatic drug resistance will require further investigation.

Expression of the spexin gene in the rat adrenal gland and evidences suggesting that spexin inhibits adrenocortical cell proliferation.

Spexin (SPX, also called NPQ) is a recently identified, highly conserved peptide which is processed and secreted. We analysed the SPX gene and its protein product in the rat adrenal gland to ascertain whether SPX is involved in the regulation of corticosteroid secretion of and growth of adrenocortical cells. In adult rat adrenal glands the highest levels of SPX mRNA were present in the glomerulosa (ZG) and fasciculate/reticularis (ZF/R) zones. High SPX gene expression levels were found in freshly isolated adult rat ZG and ZF/R cells. In cultured adrenocortical cells the levels of SPX mRNA were lower than in freshly isolated cells. SPX mRNA expression levels were found to be 2-3 times higher during days 90-540 of postnatal development than found during days 2-45. Prolonged ACTH administration lowered and dexamethasone increased adrenal SPX mRNA levels in vivo. Adrenal enucleation produced a significant linear increase in SPX mRNA levels, with the highest value occurring at day 8 after surgery, with control values taken on day 30 after enucleation. Immunohistochemistry revealed SPX-like immunoreactivity in the entire cortex of the adult male rat and in enucleation-induced regenerating cortex. A concentration of 10-6M SPX peptide stimulated basal aldosterone secretion by freshly isolated ZG. In prolonged exposure of adrenocortical cell primary cultures to SPX (10-6M) resulted in a small increase in corticosterone secretion and a notable decrease in BrdU incorporation. The results suggest the direct involvement of SPX in the regulation of adrenocortical cell proliferation; however, the mechanism of action remains unknown.

Extracellular Matrix Proteins Expression Profiling in Chemoresistant Variants of the A2780 Ovarian Cancer Cell Line

Ovarian cancer is the leading cause of death among gynaecological malignancies. Extracellular matrix (ECM) can affect drug resistance by preventing the penetration of the drug into cancer cells and increased resistance to apoptosis. This study demonstrates alterations in the expression levels of ECM components and related genes in cisplatin-, doxorubicin-, topotecan-, and paclitaxel-resistant variants of the A2780 ovarian cancer cell line. Affymetrix Gene Chip Human Genome Array Strips were used for hybridisations. The genes that had altered expression levels in drug-resistant sublines were selected and filtered by scatter plots. The genes that were up- or downregulated more than fivefold were selected and listed. Among the investigated genes, 28 genes were upregulated, 10 genes were downregulated, and two genes were down- or upregulated depending on the cell line. Between upregulated genes 12 were upregulated very significantly—over 20-fold. These genes included COL1A2, COL12A1, COL21A1, LOX, TGFBI, LAMB1, EFEMP1, GPC3, SDC2, MGP, MMP3, and TIMP3. Four genes were very significantly downregulated: COL11A1, LAMA2, GPC6, and LUM. The expression profiles of investigated genes provide a preliminary insight into the relationship between drug resistance and the expression of ECM components. Identifying correlations between investigated genes and drug resistance will require further analysis.

Natriuretic peptides in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Atrial (ANP), brain (BNP), and C-type (CNP) natriuretic peptides act by binding to three main subtypes of receptors, named NPR-A, -B, and -C. NPR-A and NPR-B are coupled with guanylate cyclase. Not only NPR-C is involved in removing natriuretic peptides from the circulation but it also acts through inhibition of adenylyl cyclase. NPR-A binds ANP and BNP; NPR-B preferentially binds CNP; and NPR-C binds all natriuretic peptides with similar affinities. All natriuretic peptides and their receptors are widely present in the hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal cortex, and medulla. In the hypothalamus, they reduce norepinephrine release, inhibit oxytocin, vasopressin, corticotropin-releasing factor, and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone release. In the hypophysis, natriuretic peptides inhibit basal and induced ACTH release. Conversely, the effects of natriuretic peptides on secretion of growth, luteinizing, and follicle-stimulating hormones are not clear. Natriuretic peptides are known to inhibit basal and stimulated aldosterone secretion, through an increase of intracellular cGMP, and to inhibit the growth of zona glomerulosa. Inhibition or stimulation of glucocorticoid secretion by adrenocortical cells has been reported on the basis of the species involved, and an indirect effect mediated by adrenalmedullary cells has been hypothesized. In the adrenal medulla, natriuretic peptides inhibit catecholamine release and increase catecholamine uptake. It appears that natriuretic peptides may play a role in the pathophysiology of adrenocortical neoplasias and pheochromocytomas.