Marcos Lana

Combining Analytical Methods for Assessing Food Security across the Food Value Chain: A Conceptual Integrated Approach

Food security (FS) is a function of food availability, accessibility, stability and utilization. Food value chains (FVCs) are part of the food system and are characterized by five main components: natural resources, food production, processing, markets and consumption. Many methods are available to assess single FVC components, but few cover a series of FVC components. This paper introduces an integrated research framework which combines both qualitative and quantitative methodologies across a generic FVC. Furthermore, this approach provides mechanisms to identify the contribution to FS of each component in the FVC. The methodology uses an FVC as an analytical framework within which to assess FS in a systematic approach. Starting with a working scenario, each tool was evaluated according to its potential to assess FS indicators in different components, and then classified according to its temporal and spatial scales. The advantages, challenges and limitations of this conceptual approach are evaluated and discussed.

Nutrient Balances in Agriculture: A Basis for the Efficiency Survey of Agricultural Groundwater Conservation Measures

In nutrient balances, additions and removals of nutrients are assessed to identify the remaining concentrations of nutrients in soil. Balances can be performed using operational records of nutrients applications and other agronomic information (crops, yields, weather, etc.) at farm or even field level. The aim of performing nutrient balances is to obtain an overview of nutrient levels, in particular to prevent surpluses that could lead to environmental problems such as groundwater contamination, water eutrophication, air pollution and an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter will provide an overview of methods used to assess soil nutrient levels at farm and field level. The methods described here can be used by farmers, landscape planners, environmentalists, politicians and other stakeholders as a basis for taking agricultural groundwater conservation measures. The procedures and recommendations specified in this chapter are in accordance with the guidelines of the DWA—German association for water, wastewater and waste: “Efficiency of measures to control land use for groundwater conservation—the example of nitrogen” (DWA-M 911 (2013): Effizienzkontrolle von Masnahmen zur grundwasserschonenden Bodennutzung am Beispiel des Stickstoffs).

Land use dynamics in Brazilian La Plata Basin and anthropogenic climate change

The La Plata Basin (LPB) is one of the most important regions for agriculture and livestock production in South America, playing a central role in the world food production and food security. Within its borders is also located the whole Brazilian Pantanal region. Identifying the most important land use sectors in LPB as well as the changes observed in the past years is fundamental to recognize which areas of the basin might be more vulnerable to climate change in order to design adaptation strategies. A general characterization of land use and livestock production of Brazilian LPB was done by using the System of Automatic Retrieving (SIDRA) of Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) platform as the major source of data. It was observed expressive increases in land areas used for temporary crops, such as soybean, sugarcane, and maize, as well as increases in poultry and swine production. These important changes in agricultural land use and livestock production are currently associated to non-climatic drivers, but this dynamic might be strongly affected by the consequences of climate change and variability, with negative socio-economic impacts for the whole region.

Trans-SEC’s food security research in Tanzania: principles, research models and assumptions

Food security has become a major worldwide concern and key policy issue (Stephens et al. 2017; Foley et al. 2011). The topic also gained economic importance through global change. New markets, trade liberalisation, volatile price developments and transport issues also shape agricultural production structures (Dithmer and Abdulai 2017). However, while demand and consumption increase in some regions, it is usually the rural poor population that suffers from inadequate food supply, having no market access and facing supply chain risks in remote locations (Stein and Hosaena 2016). Also, the mainly rain-fed agricultural systems are not only very vulnerable to climatic changes (Below et al. 2015), they are dominated by subsistence-oriented smallholder farmers who lack external inputs, modern technology, access to finance, secure land rights, institutional support and adaptive capacity (Shikuku et al. 2017). This holds true for Tanzania (Graef et al. 2015, b; Muthoni et al. 2017). Despite overall positive developments in the past years, a large proportion of the population faces extreme poverty, the majority living in rural households (Muthoni et al. 2017). Tanzania is among those African countries with the highest levels of malnutrition. As a result, a substantial percentage of children suffer from stunted growth (McCullum et al. 2015). The situation is aggravated by above-average population growth. Agriculture is the main source of employment and livelihood for the vast majority of the population (Arndt et al. 2012), But despite its critical role for this East African country, the agricultural sector does not prosper and is characterized by low productivity. Key limiting factors include inadequate infrastructure and storage facilities, lack of incentives for smallholder farmers to produce beyond selfsufficiency or low economies of scale (Asfaw et al. 2012; Uckert et al. 2015). Strategies are needed to close the yield gap sustainably and address the highly complex state of vulnerability encompassing economic and socio-political factors (Candel 2017; Graef et al. 2014, 2015a, b; Sieber et al. 2015a, b; Mutabazi et al. 2015). New research frameworks are therefore needed (Reif et al. 2015). Given this background, there is a strong need to test new research approaches in order to increase efficiencies and effectiveness of agricultural innovations and, in particular, to focus on upand out-scaling. In this paper we:

Assessing and Controlling Land Use Impacts on Groundwater Quality

Stewardship of fresh water resources is of paramount importance throughout Europe and for all environmental policies now and in the future. The problem has especially affected areas under predominantly agricultural use. The chapter provides an overview of methods used to assess soil, pore water and groundwater nutrient levels on farms and agricultural fields. We developed a zone monitoring model (ZMM) which is a basis for appropriate monitoring schemes in view of risks for the groundwater coming from agricultural lands. Based on this scheme, we describe various methods to monitor nitrate concentrations at different unit levels, from the farm to the soil zone and on to the groundwater. At farm level, nutrient balances are mandatory to identify the potentially remaining concentrations of nutrients in the soil. Nutrient balances provide an overview of nutrient levels, in particular to prevent surpluses which, as well as contaminating groundwater, could lead to environmental problems such as open water eutrophication, local air pollution and an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Balances can be performed using operational records of nutrient application and other agronomic information (crops, yields, weather, etc.) at the farm or even field level. A catalogue of agricultural measures for groundwater conservation is available. It is to be supplemented by a methodology for the in situ monitoring of the groundwater quality as a basis for surveying the efficiency of those measures. General characteristics, the benefits and the disadvantages of recent monitoring methods are presented, summarised and rated under the heading “appropriateness for efficiency survey”. The methods described here are groundwater sampling by means of a suction lance, soil sampling beneath the groundwater table, groundwater sampling using the direct-push method, sampling from observation wells, from multi-level observation wells and from production wells. Especially in the shallow, near-surface groundwater, the concentration of dissolved substances almost instantly mirrors the effect of agriculture on the aquatic environment. It can be considered a kind of early-warning system before the surface or drinking water quality are impaired. This survey is preferably focused on nitrate, an important substance for plant nutrition known to behave as a conservative tracer carried below the root zone with the subsurface water. Computer programs have been developed for achieving the locally specific optimal strategy for groundwater-protecting land management strategies and practices. Nutrient balances are included in the latest information and communication technology (ICT) and farm management information systems (FMIS). In Germany, the methods described in this chapter are recommended as a work basis and decision tool for all bodies required to assess the efficiency of agricultural operations in the framework of legal regulations or voluntary cooperation. They can be used by farmers, landscape planners, environmentalists, water associations, water companies, decision makers and others. The whole package of decision trees and monitoring methods in the ZMM, the FMIS and ICT computer programs also has the potential to be tailored and applied to other regions.

Colombia’s rural development must honour peace agreement

It is absurd to put effort and public resources into research that has already been published. This will continue to be a risk as long as papers in non-English journals are not routinely indexed in the international databases (see also J. Lebel and R. McLean Nature 559, 23–26; 2018). Some national databases offer a partial solution (see J. Tao et al. Nature 557, 492; 2018). For example, Ukraine’s Panteleimon database (http://www.panteleimon.org) translates the title, abstract and some figure legends and tables into English. Nevertheless, people should never cite research that has not been read in full. The scientific community needs to develop a comprehensive multi-language translation tool with the help of services such as Google Translate. This would enable international researchers to access regional databases not compiled in English and to find out all the essential details — for instance, regarding experimental design and results, or whether the paper was peer-reviewed. It would also resolve problems of priority and giving proper credit. Daniel Prieto Instituto de Investigaciones Biologicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo, Uruguay. dprieto@fcien.edu.uy Rectify biased take on science history

Should Heavy Metals Be Monitored in Foods Derived From Soils Fertilized With Animal Waste

1 Técnico em Agroecologia, Instituto Federal Catarinense, Rio do Sul, Brazil, 2 Agroecossistemas, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil, Departamento de Biologia, Agrobiologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil, 4 Biologia Celular e Molecular, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil, Department of Crop Production Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, 6 SUSLAND, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research, Müncheberg, Germany, Ciência do Solo, Centro de Ciências Agroveterinárias, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina, Lages, Brazil, Ciência do Solo, Departamento de Solos, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil

Trans-SEC’s food security research in Tanzania: from constraints to adoption for out- and upscaling of agricultural innovations

Implementing agricultural innovations is key for coping strategies in the contexts of climate change and food security (Senyolo et al. 2018; Bommarco et al. 2018). The agricultural sector is still the central focus for rural development, especially in remote areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. Links to Small and Medium-size Enterprises (SMEs), among others, are often lacking, due to comparatively high costs for logistics, transport, and communication (Letiche 2010; Meyfroidt 2018; Stephens et al. 2018). Peri-urban and rural areas need specific and tailored livelihood strategies (Fraval et al. 2018). Thus, enabling environments for business models and alternative ecosystem services (Bommarco et al. 2018) are difficult to establish. Low economies of size and scale hinder the establishment of profitable economies (Tomich et al. 2018; Letiche 2010). Nevertheless, manifold implementation models for upgrading agricultural activities do exist and are continuously being tested and adapted in international research projects (Candel 2017). Specific implementation models disseminate innovations despite various structural problems of research and development in Sub-Saharan Africa (Lipton 1988). Among these theoretical models, the main challenge remaining is how agricultural innovations can be disseminated efficiently and effectively through outscaling and upscaling, given varying site conditions and diverse target groups (Senyolo et al. 2018). While pro-poor approaches focus mostly on small-scale farmers, the question of the right setting for agricultural innovations persists. In less favorable areas, typically low-cost innovations are more suitable due to limited capacities (capital), while higher income farmers in favorable production areas might seek higher investments and more revenue through market integration (Tomich et al. 2018). Additionally, at local levels, some farmers are more innovative than others, seeking different agro-ecological transformation strategies (Tittonell 2014). These superior performing farmers are more likely to adopt new techniques, even if they are riskier (Steinke and van Etten 2018). Innovators and catalyzers are key to more efficient and reliable adoption of agricultural innovations (Steinke and van Etten 2018; Below et al. 2015; Uckert et al. 2015). The issue of innovation adoption is an important research topic bridging the gap between Bmaximum yield potential^ and actual yields harvested in farmers’ fields (Foley et al. 2011). Such research should be long term and monitored over time in order to arrive at sustainable improvements. Agricultural innovations should be continually optimized in response to changing conditions (Tomich et al. 2018; Mutabazi et al. 2015, Senyolo et al. 2018, Below et al. 2015). Furthermore, an adequate incentive structure is a necessity for the long-term adoption of successful techniques (Nhantumbo et al. 2016). These applied adoption theories are closely linked and indispensably coupled with outand upscaling methods, which seek efficient and effective horizontal and vertical * Stefan Sieber stefan.sieber@zalf.de

Key factors influencing food security of smallholder farmers in Tanzania and the role of cassava as a strategic crop

Due to beneficial characteristics of cassava such as robustness and versatility for multiple uses, it can have a major role in contributing to local food security. The objective of this study was to find out whether and how the cultivation of cassava benefits smallholder farmers in the regions of Dodoma and Morogoro, Tanzania. In addition, the study assessed the main factors that support or threaten food security of smallholder farmer households in the survey region and analysed whether cassava cultivation could counteract them. We applied a mixed methods approach. Quantitative data were provided by a comprehensive household survey of the Trans-SEC project, and qualitative data were collected by conducting semi-structured interviews. To approach the complexity of our chosen food security definition, three approaches for household food security measurement were applied. These covered the components of food availability, food access, and food utilization. Additionally, dependent variables for regression models were constructed and a multivariate analysis was run. The results show that cassava contributes to food security in the households, but achieving food security through cassava cultivation was constrained by several factors, including pests, missing markets, poor processing, social perception and lack of knowledge. Besides these, other factors affecting food security in the study area were found, uncovering some roots of local food insecurity and serving as a basis for further research and action on how to enhance food security.

Social organization, constraints and opportunities for kitchen garden implementation: ScalA and ScalA-FS assessment tools in Morogoro and Dodoma, Tanzania

Tanzania is the second largest country in East Africa with about 50 million inhabitants in 2014, and it is also considered as one of the poorest countries in the world. The country strongly depends on agriculture production. Like many other poor countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Tanzania sees food security as a central part of development and poverty reduction efforts. This work aims to investigate the opportunities and constraints of implementing a policy of “Kitchen Gardens” as a practice for two regions of Tanzania. The research was carried out with a qualitative approach through a first round of semi-structured interviews using a Scaling up Assessment Tool (ScalA), and a second round with a questionnaire survey, using a Scaling up Assessment Tool for Food Security (ScalA-FS) by Tanzanian and German experts from the Trans-SEC project. The experts assessed implementation suitability and the institutional requirements of Kitchen Garden across the food value chains in two Tanzanian regions with different climate regions, namely Dodoma (semi-arid) and Morogoro (sub-humid). Kitchen Garden assessments did not differ significantly between these regions. The ScalA tools provided a range of statements that allowed an overview of the structural situation to be obtained, which could enable Kitchen Garden activity to be incentivized and scaled up. However, a number of specific aspects, potentials, challenges, and likely bottlenecks of implementation related to their feasibility and institutional requirements, were indicated, which should be carefully monitored during implementation. Adopting the recommended strategies could help to close gaps in implementation, enhance community empowerment and social network development, reduce food insecurity and improve the health of the communities.