Margot Fonteyne

Near infrared and Raman spectroscopy for the in-process monitoring of pharmaceutical production processes.

Within the Process Analytical Technology (PAT) framework, it is of utmost importance to obtain critical process and formulation information during pharmaceutical processing. Process analyzers are the essential PAT tools for real-time process monitoring and control as they supply the data from which relevant process and product information and conclusions are to be extracted. Since the last decade, near infrared (NIR) and Raman spectroscopy have been increasingly used for real-time measurements of critical process and product attributes, as these techniques allow rapid and nondestructive measurements without sample preparations. Furthermore, both techniques provide chemical and physical information leading to increased process understanding. Probes coupled to the spectrometers by fiber optic cables can be implemented directly into the process streams allowing continuous in-process measurements. This paper aims at reviewing the use of Raman and NIR spectroscopy in the PAT setting, i.e., during processing, with special emphasis in pharmaceutics and dosage forms.

Continuous twin screw granulation: Influence of process variables on granule and tablet quality

The aim of the current study was to screen theophylline (125 mg) tablets manufactured via twin screw granulation in order to improve process understanding and knowledge of process variables that determine granule and tablet quality. A premix of theophylline anhydrate, α-lactose monohydrate and PVP (ratio: 30/67.5/2.5,w/w) was granulated with demineralized water. Experiments were done using the high-shear wet granulation module (based on twin screw granulation) of the ConsiGma™-25 unit (a continuous tablet manufacturing system) for particle size enlargement. After drying, granules were compressed using a MODUL™ P tablet press (compression force: 10 kN, tablet diameter: 12 mm). Using a D-optimal experimental design, the effect of several process variables (throughput (10-25 kg/h), screw speed (600-950 rpm), screw configuration (number (2, 4, 6 and 12) and angle (30°, 60° and 90°) of kneading elements), barrel temperature (25-40°C) and method of binder addition (dry versus wet)) on the granulation process (torque and temperature increase in barrel wall), granule (particle size distribution, friability and flowability) and tablet (tensile strength, porosity, friability, disintegration time and dissolution) quality was evaluated. The results showed that the quality of granules and tablets can be optimized by adjusting specific process variables (number of kneading elements, barrel temperature and binder addition method) during a granulation process using a continuous twin screw granulator.

Real-time assessment of critical quality attributes of a continuous granulation process

There exists the intention to shift pharmaceutical manufacturing of solid dosage forms from traditional batch production towards continuous production. The currently applied conventional quality control systems, based on sampling and time-consuming off-line analyses in analytical laboratories, would annul the advantages of continuous processing. It is clear that real-time quality assessment and control is indispensable for continuous production. This manuscript evaluates strengths and weaknesses of several complementary Process Analytical Technology (PAT) tools implemented in a continuous wet granulation process, which is part of a fully continuous from powder-to-tablet production line. The use of Raman and NIR-spectroscopy and a particle size distribution analyzer is evaluated for the real-time monitoring of critical parameters during the continuous wet agglomeration of an anhydrous theophylline− lactose blend. The solid state characteristics and particle size of the granules were analyzed in real-time and the critical process parameters influencing these granule characteristics were identified. The temperature of the granulator barrel, the amount of granulation liquid added and, to a lesser extent, the powder feed rate were the parameters influencing the solid state of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). A higher barrel temperature and a higher powder feed rate, resulted in larger granules.

Visualization and understanding of the granulation liquid mixing and distribution during continuous twin screw granulation using NIR chemical imaging.

Over the last decade, there has been increased interest in the application of twin screw granulation as a continuous wet granulation technique for pharmaceutical drug formulations. However, the mixing of granulation liquid and powder material during the short residence time inside the screw chamber and the atypical particle size distribution (PSD) of granules produced by twin screw granulation is not yet fully understood. Therefore, this study aims at visualizing the granulation liquid mixing and distribution during continuous twin screw granulation using NIR chemical imaging. In first instance, the residence time of material inside the barrel was investigated as function of screw speed and moisture content followed by the visualization of the granulation liquid distribution as function of different formulation and process parameters (liquid feed rate, liquid addition method, screw configuration, moisture content and barrel filling degree). The link between moisture uniformity and granule size distributions was also studied. For residence time analysis, increased screw speed and lower moisture content resulted to a shorter mean residence time and narrower residence time distribution. Besides, the distribution of granulation liquid was more homogenous at higher moisture content and with more kneading zones on the granulator screws. After optimization of the screw configuration, a two-level full factorial experimental design was performed to evaluate the influence of moisture content, screw speed and powder feed rate on the mixing efficiency of the powder and liquid phase. From these results, it was concluded that only increasing the moisture content significantly improved the granulation liquid distribution. This study demonstrates that NIR chemical imaging is a fast and adequate measurement tool for allowing process visualization and hence for providing better process understanding of a continuous twin screw granulation system.

Impact of screw configuration on the particle size distribution of granules produced by twin screw granulation.

Twin screw granulation (TSG) has been reported by different research groups as an attractive technology for continuous wet granulation. However, in contrast to fluidized bed granulation, granules produced via this technique typically have a wide and multimodal particle size distribution (PSD), resulting in suboptimal flow properties. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the impact of granulator screw configuration on the PSD of granules produced by TSG. Experiments were performed using a 25 mm co-rotating twin screw granulator, being part of the ConsiGma™-25 system (a fully continuous from-powder-to-tablet manufacturing line from GEA Pharma Systems). Besides the screw elements conventionally used for TSG (conveying and kneading elements), alternative designs of screw elements (tooth-mixing-elements (TME), screw mixing elements (SME) and cutters) were investigated using an α-lactose monohydrate formulation granulated with distilled water. Granulation with only conveying elements resulted in wide and multimodal PSD. Using kneading elements, the width of the PSD could be partially narrowed and the liquid distribution was more homogeneous. However, still a significant fraction of oversized agglomerates was obtained. Implementing additional kneading elements or cutters in the final section of the screw configuration was not beneficial. Furthermore, granulation with only TME or SME had limited impact on the width of the PSD. Promising results were obtained by combining kneading elements with SME, as for these configurations the PSD was narrower and shifted to the size fractions suitable for tableting.

Mechanistic modelling of the drying behaviour of single pharmaceutical granules.

The trend to move towards continuous production processes in pharmaceutical applications enhances the necessity to develop mechanistic models to understand and control these processes. This work focuses on the drying behaviour of a single wet granule before tabletting, using a six-segmented fluidised bed drying system, which is part of a fully continuous from-powder-to-tablet manufacturing line. The drying model is based on a model described by Mezhericher et al. and consists of two submodels. In the first drying phase (submodel 1), the surface water evaporates, while in the second drying phase (submodel 2), the water inside the granule evaporates. The second submodel contains an empirical power coefficient, β. A sensitivity analysis was performed to study the influence of parameters on the moisture content of single pharmaceutical granules, which clearly points towards the importance of β on the drying behaviour. Experimental data with the six-segmented fluidised bed dryer were collected to calibrate β. An exponential dependence on the drying air temperature was found. Independent experiments were done for the validation of the drying model.

Use of a continuous twin screw granulation and drying system during formulation development and process optimization

Since small scale is key for successful introduction of continuous techniques in the pharmaceutical industry to allow its use during formulation development and process optimization, it is essential to determine whether the product quality is similar when small quantities of materials are processed compared to the continuous processing of larger quantities. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether material processed in a single cell of the six-segmented fluid bed dryer of the ConsiGma™-25 system (a continuous twin screw granulation and drying system introduced by GEA Pharma Systems, Collette™, Wommelgem, Belgium) is predictive of granule and tablet quality during full-scale manufacturing when all drying cells are filled. Furthermore, the performance of the ConsiGma™-1 system (a mobile laboratory unit) was evaluated and compared to the ConsiGma™-25 system. A premix of two active ingredients, powdered cellulose, maize starch, pregelatinized starch and sodium starch glycolate was granulated with distilled water. After drying and milling (1000 μm, 800 rpm), granules were blended with magnesium stearate and compressed using a Modul™ P tablet press (tablet weight: 430 mg, main compression force: 12 kN). Single cell experiments using the ConsiGma™-25 system and ConsiGma™-1 system were performed in triplicate. Additionally, a 1h continuous run using the ConsiGma™-25 system was executed. Process outcomes (torque, barrel wall temperature, product temperature during drying) and granule (residual moisture content, particle size distribution, bulk and tapped density, hausner ratio, friability) as well as tablet (hardness, friability, disintegration time and dissolution) quality attributes were evaluated. By performing a 1h continuous run, it was detected that a stabilization period was needed for torque and barrel wall temperature due to initial layering of the screws and the screw chamber walls with material. Consequently, slightly deviating granule and tablet quality attributes were obtained during the start-up phase of the 1h run. For the single cell runs, granule and tablet properties were comparable with results obtained during the second part of the 1h run (after start-up). Although deviating granule quality (particle size distribution and Hausner ratio) was observed due to the divergent design of the ConsiGma™-1 unit and the ConsiGma™-25 system (horizontal set-up) used in this study, tablet quality produced from granules processed with the ConsiGma™-1 system was predictive for tablet quality obtained during continuous production using the ConsiGma™-25 system.

Distribution of binder in granules produced by means of twin screw granulation

According to the quality by design principle processes may not remain black-boxes and full process understanding is required. The granule size distribution of granules produced via twin screw granulation is often found to be bimodal. The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of binder distribution within granules produced via twin screw granulation in order to investigate if an inhomogeneous spread of binder is causing this bimodal size distribution. Theophylline-lactose-polyvinylpyrrolidone K30 (PVP) (30-67.5-2.5%, w/w) was used as a model formulation. The intra-granular distribution of PVP was evaluated by means of hyperspectral coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy. For the evaluated formulation, no PVP rich zones were detected when applying a lateral spatial resolution of 0.5 μm, indicating that PVP is homogenously distributed within the granules.

Moisture and drug solid-state monitoring during a continuous drying process using empirical and mass balance models

Classically, the end point detection during fluid bed drying has been performed using indirect parameters, such as the product temperature or the humidity of the outlet drying air. This paper aims at comparing those classic methods to both in-line moisture and solid-state determination by means of Process Analytical Technology (PAT) tools (Raman and NIR spectroscopy) and a mass balance approach. The six-segmented fluid bed drying system being part of a fully continuous from-powder-to-tablet production line (ConsiGma™-25) was used for this study. A theophylline:lactose:PVP (30:67.5:2.5) blend was chosen as model formulation. For the development of the NIR-based moisture determination model, 15 calibration experiments in the fluid bed dryer were performed. Six test experiments were conducted afterwards, and the product was monitored in-line with NIR and Raman spectroscopy during drying. The results (drying endpoint and residual moisture) obtained via the NIR-based moisture determination model, the classical approach by means of indirect parameters and the mass balance model were then compared. Our conclusion is that the PAT-based method is most suited for use in a production set-up. Secondly, the different size fractions of the dried granules obtained during different experiments (fines, yield and oversized granules) were compared separately, revealing differences in both solid state of theophylline and moisture content between the different granule size fractions.

NIR spectroscopic method for the in-line moisture assessment during drying in a six-segmented fluid bed dryer of a continuous tablet production line: Validation of quantifying abilities and uncertainty assessment

This study focuses on the thorough validation of an in-line NIR based moisture quantification method in the six-segmented fluid bed dryer of a continuous from-powder-to-tablet manufacturing line (ConsiGma™ 25, GEA Pharma Systems nv, Wommelgem, Belgium). The moisture assessment ability of an FT-NIR spectrometer (Matrix™-F Duplex, Bruker Optics Ltd, UK) equipped with a fiber-optic Lighthouse Probe™ (LHP, GEA Pharma Systems nv, Wommelgem, Belgium) was investigated. Although NIR spectroscopy is a widely used technique for in-process moisture determination, a minority of NIR spectroscopy methods is thoroughly validated. A moisture quantification PLS model was developed. Twenty calibration experiments were conducted, during which spectra were collected at-line and then regressed versus the corresponding residual moisture values obtained via Karl Fischer measurements. The developed NIR moisture quantification model was then validated by calculating the accuracy profiles on the basis of the analysis results of independent in-line validation experiments. Furthermore, as the aim of the NIR method is to replace the destructive, time-consuming Karl Fischer titration, it was statistically demonstrated that the new NIR method performs at least as good as the Karl Fischer reference method.