Marguerite Stevenson Barratt

Mothers and Fathers of Children With Down Syndrome: Parental Stress and Involvement in Childcare

Parental stress was examined in socioeconomically matched samples of mothers and fathers of children with Down syndrome and typically developing children. Parents of children with Down syndrome perceived more caregiving difficulties, child-related stress (distractibility, demandingness, unacceptability), and parent-related stress (incompetence, depression, health problems, role-restriction) than did parents of typically developing children. For the combined groups of parents, mothers stress was associated with childrens caregiving difficulties; fathers stress, with childrens group status (Down syndrome, typically developing). Mothers who reported more responsibility for childcare perceived more difficulties with health, role restriction, and spousal support. Fathers who reported more responsibility for childcare perceived fewer difficulties with attachment and parental competence. Partner stress was associated both with mothers and with fathers stress.

Mother-infant responsiveness: Timing, mutual regulation, and interactional context

Mutual regulation during the naturalistic interaction of 150 mothers and their 4-month-old infants was investigated from a dynamic systems perspective. Microanalyses of a wide range of behaviors and analysis of contingencies indicated that a 3-s time period best captured contingencies. Both mothers and infants communicated primarily through vocal signals and responses, although maternal touches and infant looks also elicited responses. Although more expressive mothers did not have infants who behaved similarly, levels of contingent responsiveness between partners were significantly associated and occurred within distinct behavioral channels, suggesting coregulated interactional processes in which contingently responsive mothers shape their infants communications toward mutual similarity. Mothers were more influential than infants over object play, whereas infants were more influential than mothers over expressive behavior. Interactional context consistently influenced contingent responsiveness; there was less mutual responsiveness when the infant was exploring, being held, or looking.

The Structure of Mother-Child Play: Young Children with Down Syndrome and Typically Developing Children.

This study explored developmental changes and effects of Down syndrome on mothers structuring of their childrens play. Mothers and their young children with Down syndrome (n = 28) were compared with socioeconomically matched samples of mothers and their mental age-matched (n = 28) and chronological age-matched (n = 28) typically developing children. Mothers of typically developing children exhibited more object demonstrations with their developmentally younger children, who exhibited less object play. Mothers of children with Down syndrome were more directive and supportive than were mothers of younger and older typically developing children, who did not differ in their frequencies of these behaviors. More maternal supportive object behavior was associated with more object play and vocalization by children with Down syndrome. Mothers and children in all 3 groups were contingently responsive to their partners behavioral signals.

Early interactive processes: Parenting by adolescent and adult single mothers☆

Abstract The parenting skills of adolescent (15–18 years) and adult (19–37 years) single mothers were compared in terms of behavior frequencies, appropriateness, and vocal responsiveness. Corresponding behavior frequencies and vocal responsiveness of infants were also examined. Twenty-four adolescent mothers and 24 adult mothers were observed in their homes for 1 hour when their infants were 4 months old. At 12 months, similar observations were conducted with 17 of the mother-infant dyads in each group. All mothers were primiparous, Caucasian, and single at the time of their infants births; adolescent and adult mothers were approximately matched on family background. Even with these controls, differences were evident in the parenting of adolescent and adult mothers. With their 4-month-old infants, adolescent mothers vocalized less, smiled less, and offered or showed toys less frequently than did adult mothers. When their infants were 12 months old, adolescent mothers were rated as less appropriate in their interactions and were significantly less vocally responsive than adult mothers. Infants of adolescent mothers, as compared with infants of adult mothers, exhibited less smiling and vocalizing at 4 months and an absence of vocal responsiveness at 4 and 12 months.

The Impact of Low-risk Prematurity on Maternal Behaviour and Toddler Outcomes

This short-term longitudinal research project was designed to compare the maternal behaviour of mothers whose toddlers had been born preterm with the maternal behaviour of mothers whose toddlers had been born at term; the outcomes for the toddlers were also assessed. Twenty-one toddlers who had been born preterm with low medical risk (1460-2420 grams) were compared with 21 term toddlers who were matched in terms of social class. The heightened maternal responsiveness that had been observed during the first year with preterm infants had disappeared by 12 months, and by 20 months it was the mothers whose infants had been born at term who were more vocally responsive. During the second year, the mothers of preterm toddlers were characterised by more maternal control behaviour than were the mothers of term toddlers. Assessments of cognitive and language performance at the gestationally corrected ages of 12 and 20 months did not differentiate the toddlers who had been born preterm and term. In terms of play skills, reflected during interaction with their mothers at 12 and 20 months, the preterm toddlers were more actively involved than were the term toddlers. Despite the successful adjustment of these low-risk preterm toddlers, maternal behaviour was affected by the circumstances of preterm birth, even after 20 months.

Fathers and infants

Les auteurs des articles qui suivent dans ce numero special nous presentent un survol des definitions historiques du role de parentage du pere et decrivent les themes historiques abordes dans des etudes de limpact des peres sur leurs bebes et leurs jeunes enfants, Les auterus suggerent six themes qui sont non seulement descriptifs des recherches actuelles portant sur les peres, mais qui representent egalement une direction, une orientation specitique pour guider les recherches et les etudes cliniques des peres pour les dix premieres annees du millenaire: 1) accent sur levaluation directe du comportement de parentage des peres plutot que de dependre de ce que rapporte la mere: 2) accent sur les effets de la presence du pere sur le developpement precoce de lenfant, plutot que sur les effets de son absence; 3) accept sur les differences individuelles entre les peres, y compris les determinants de parentage du pere trans-culturels et au sein meme dune meme culture, et leur impact et resultat sur lenfant; 4) accent sur le role du pere dans la socialisation des genres; 5) accent sur la conceptualisation de la famille comme etant plus quune dyade, que le pere social ou biologique tasse ou non partie de lunite familiale; et 6) accent sur linclusion des peres dans les interventions psychothapeutiques ayant rapport avec les nourrissons et les jeunes enfants.

Adjustment to Motherhood by Single Adolescents

The psychological adjustment of adolescent mothers was compared with that of adolescent nonmothers single adult mothers and married adult mothers. Individual differences within the sample of adolescent mothers were also explored. Adolescent mothers reported greater enjoyment with life and well-being than adolescent nonmothers but reported more mental health problems and less well-being than married adult mothers. For adolescent mothers a positive relation existed between their mental health and the assistance they received with caregiving. (authors)

Japan–France–US comparison of infant weaning from mother's viewpoint

Background: Breastfeeding and weaning are strongly connected with infant–mother mutual autonomy, and hence are good touchstones to examine the characteristics of the mother–child relationship. Comparison of the weaning practice gives a framework to understand characteristics of the mother–infant relationship. Objective: The purpose of this study was to compare three industrialised countries concerning the relationship between feeding and weaning practices and its reasons, mother’s perception of child care, and of breast milk and formula. Methods: A questionnaire study on weaning practice was conducted for 310 Japanese, 756 French, and 222 American mothers with 4- to 20-month-old infants. Results: French mothers expected and had accomplished weaning at an earlier age of the infant, compared to Japanese and American mothers. Perceived insufficiency of breast milk was the leading reason for the termination of breastfeeding for Japanese mothers at the earlier stages, whereas back to work was the more important reason for French mothers. Japanese mothers were more negative in their image of themselves as mothers, whereas French mothers felt more burdened by child-care. Japanese mothers who terminated breastfeeding because of perceived breast milk insufficiency were also those who were less motivated to breastfeed. Conclusion: Weaning is a significant framework to interpret cultural differences in mother–infant relationship. The perceived insufficiency is interpreted as a solution of conflict between the social pressure to breastfeed and its burden.

Single mothers and their infants: factors associated with optimal parenting

This article examines factors that may influence optimal early parenting by Caucasian single mothers. The parenting of 53 single mothers was assessed using the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME). Optimal parenting was linked with older maternal age, fewer maternal psychological symptoms, and less difficult infant temperament. Less optimal parenting was characteristic of mothers from disrupted families of origin and mothers who lived with adult relatives. The particular needs of the single mother should be considered when formulating public policy, identifying psychological risk factors, and designing intervention programs.

Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Families in the United States at 2000

Increasingly, the good work being done for and about families is multidisciplinary and collaborative. An impressive number of disciplines are closely studying issues facing American families in 2000 and in the future, each contributing significantly to a more highly integrated view of the family and the challenges families must address.Consolidating Our Thinking about Todays FamiliesSociology and Demography give us a statistical picture of American family at 2000; the United States is at some very important points of transition (Washington & Andrews, 1998). We are an aging country, with more than 50,000 individuals over 100 years old and a birth rate that has moved below the replacement level. There are great discrepancies between the rich and the poor, and the segment of American society with the greatest concentration of poverty is young children. In fact, 25 percent of young children (up to 6 years old) and their families live at or below the poverty level, and when household incomes up to 185 percent of poverty are considered (what is called near poverty) 44 percent of the young children under 6 are living in poverty or near poverty (Bennett & Li, 1998). These statistics on near poverty vary by state with a few states having less than 30 percent of young children living in poverty or near poverty and a few states having over 60 percent of young children living in poverty or near poverty. The rate of extreme poverty for young children, that is, less than 50 percent of the poverty level, has doubled in the last 20 years -- growing from 6 percent to 12 percent.In addition to the aging of America and the high levels of child poverty, the United States is increasingly characterized by racial and ethnic diversity,with 15 percent of the almost 4 million infants born each year being African American and 18 percent Hispanic (National Center for Health Statistics, 2000). Projections indicate that by 2010, the states of California, Texas, New York, and Florida will have more children of color than white (Washington & Andrews, 1998).American families can be characterized by their living arrangements and formal family structures. In the United States today, 25 percent of the households consist of only one individual living alone (Washington & Andrews, 1998). These individuals may be part of families, but they are not currently living with a family. The traditional nuclear family--two parents and their child or children--account for only 25% of the households in the United States. The remainder of households include families without children and single parent families. In fact, in the United States today, about one out of three infants is born to single unmarried parents (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 1998).From the perspectives of public health, medicine and nursing, the federal publication Healthy People 2010 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 2000) provides a wealth of information about the conditions of individual Americans in 2000 and national health goals for the next 10 years. This document compiles national level indicators about the health in 28 focus areas. The ten leading health indicators include physical activity; overweight and obesity; tobacco use; substance abuse; responsible sexual behavior; mental health; injury and violence; environmental quality; immunization; and access to health care. The authors suggest two national goals--(a) Increase quality and years of healthy life (p. 8), and (b) Eliminate health disparities (p. 11). From these focus areas and goals, we can infer a lot about families. Particularly in the case of maternal and child health, there are several indicators that suggest the well being of families around the birth of a child, including infant mortality (7.2%), prematurity (7.6%) and prenatal care beginning in the first trimester of pregnancy (83%). Each of these is targeted for improvement by 2010. …