María Jesús Larriba

The transcription factor SNAIL represses vitamin D receptor expression and responsiveness in human colon cancer

Several non-hypercalcemic analogs of 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) show antitumor activity in a subset of cancer patients. High vitamin D receptor (VDR) expression, which is associated with good prognosis but is lost during tumor progression. We show that the SNAIL transcription factor represses VDR gene expression in human colon cancer cells and blocks the antitumor action of EB1089, a 1,25(OH)2D3 analog, in xenografted mice. In human colon cancers, elevated SNAIL expression correlates with downregulation of VDR.

Snail1 transcriptional repressor binds to its own promoter and controls its expression

The product of Snail1 gene is a transcriptional repressor of E-cadherin expression and an inductor of the epithelial–mesenchymal transition in several epithelial tumour cell lines. Transcription of Snail1 is induced when epithelial cells are forced to acquire a mesenchymal phenotype. In this work we demonstrate that Snail1 protein limits its own expression: Snail1 binds to an E-box present in its promoter (at −146 with respect to the transcription start) and represses its activity. Therefore, mutation of the E-box increases Snail1 transcription in epithelial and mesenchymal cells. Evidence of binding of ectopic or endogenous Snail1 to its own promoter was obtained by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) experiments. Studies performed expressing different forms of Snail1 under the control of its own promoter demonstrate that disruption of the regulatory loop increases the cellular levels of Snail protein. These results indicate that expression of Snail1 gene can be regulated by its product and evidence the existence of a fine-tuning feed-back mechanism of regulation of Snail1 transcription.

Vitamin D Receptor Deficiency Enhances Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling and Tumor Burden in Colon Cancer

Aberrant activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway is critical for the initiation and progression of most colon cancers. This activation provokes the accumulation of nuclear β-catenin and the induction of its target genes. Apcmin/+ mice are the most commonly used model for colon cancer. They harbor a mutated Apc allele and develop intestinal adenomas and carcinomas during the first months of life. This phenotype is caused by the mutation of the second Apc allele and the consequent accumulation of nuclear β-catenin in the affected cells. Here we describe that vitamin D receptor (VDR) is a crucial modulator of nuclear β-catenin levels in colon cancer in vivo. By appropriate breeding of Apcmin/+ mice and Vdr+/− mice we have generated animals expressing a mutated Apc allele and two, one, or none Vdr wild type alleles. Lack of Vdr increased the number of colonic Aberrant Crypt Foci (ACF) but not that of adenomas or carcinomas in either small intestine or colon. Importantly, colon ACF and tumors of Apcmin/+Vdr-/- mice had increased nuclear β-catenin and the tumors reached a larger size than those of Apcmin/+Vdr+/+. Both ACF and carcinomas in Apcmin/+Vdr-/- mice showed higher expression of β-catenin/TCF target genes. In line with this, VDR knock-down in cultured human colon cancer cells enhanced β-catenin nuclear content and target gene expression. Consistently, VDR depletion abrogated the capacity of 1,25(OH)2D3 to promote the relocation of β-catenin from the nucleus to the plasma membrane and to inhibit β-catenin/TCF target genes. In conclusion, VDR controls the level of nuclear β-catenin in colon cancer cells and can therefore attenuate the impact of oncogenic mutations that activate the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

Snail2 cooperates with Snail1 in the repression of vitamin D receptor in colon cancer

Vitamin D receptor (VDR) mediates the antitumoral action of the active vitamin D metabolite 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1,25(OH)(2)D(3)). VDR expression is lost during colon cancer progression causing unresponsiveness to 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) and its analogs. Previously, Snail1, an inducer of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), was reported to inhibit VDR expression. Here, we show that Snail2/Slug, but not other EMT inducers such as Zeb1, Zeb2, E47 or Twist1, represses VDR gene promoter. Moreover, Snail2 and Snail1 show additive repressing effect on VDR promoter. Snail2 inhibits VDR RNA and protein and blocks the induction of E-cadherin and an adhesive phenotype by 1,25(OH)(2)D(3). Snail2 reduces the ligand-induced VDR transcriptional activation of a consensus response element and of the CYP24 promoter. Concordantly, Snail2 inhibits the induction of CYP24 RNA and p21(CIP1), filamin A and vinculin proteins and the repression of c-MYC by 1,25(OH)(2)D(3). Additionally, Snail2 abrogates beta-catenin nuclear export and the antagonism of the transcriptional activity of beta-catenin-T-cell factor complexes by 1,25(OH)(2)D(3). SNAI2 expression is upregulated in 58% of colorectal tumors and correlates inversely with that of VDR. However, VDR downregulation is higher in tumors coexpressing SNAI2 and SNAI1 than in those expressing only one of these genes. Together, these data indicate that Snail2 and Snail1 cooperate for VDR repression in colon cancer.

RhoA–ROCK and p38MAPK-MSK1 mediate vitamin D effects on gene expression, phenotype, and Wnt pathway in colon cancer cells

The active vitamin D metabolite 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) inhibits proliferation and promotes differentiation of colon cancer cells through the activation of vitamin D receptor (VDR), a transcription factor of the nuclear receptor superfamily. Additionally, 1,25(OH)2D3 has several nongenomic effects of uncertain relevance. We show that 1,25(OH)2D3 induces a transcription-independent Ca2+ influx and activation of RhoA–Rho-associated coiled kinase (ROCK). This requires VDR and is followed by activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) and mitogen- and stress-activated kinase 1 (MSK1). As shown by the use of chemical inhibitors, dominant-negative mutants and small interfering RNA, RhoA–ROCK, and p38MAPK-MSK1 activation is necessary for the induction of CDH1/E-cadherin, CYP24, and other genes and of an adhesive phenotype by 1,25(OH)2D3. RhoA–ROCK and MSK1 are also required for the inhibition of Wnt–β-catenin pathway and cell proliferation. Thus, the action of 1,25(OH)2D3 on colon carcinoma cells depends on the dual action of VDR as a transcription factor and a nongenomic activator of RhoA–ROCK and p38MAPK-MSK1.

KDM6B/JMJD3 histone demethylase is induced by vitamin D and modulates its effects in colon cancer cells

KDM6B/JMJD3 is a histone H3 lysine demethylase with an important gene regulatory role in development and physiology. Here, we show that human JMJD3 expression is induced by the active vitamin D metabolite 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1,25(OH)(2)D(3)) and that JMJD3 modulates the gene regulatory action of this hormone. 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) activates the JMJD3 gene promoter and increases the level of JMJD3 RNA in human cancer cells. JMJD3 upregulation was strictly dependent on vitamin D receptor (VDR) expression and was abolished by cycloheximide. In SW480-ADH colon cancer cells, JMJD3 knockdown or expression of an inactive mutant JMJD3 fragment decreased the induction by 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) of several target genes and of an epithelial adhesive phenotype. Moreover, JMJD3 knockdown upregulated the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition inducers SNAIL1 and ZEB1 and the mesenchymal markers fibronectin and LEF1, while it downregulated the epithelial proteins E-cadherin, Claudin-1 and Claudin-7. Additionally, JMJD3 knockdown abolished the nuclear export of β-catenin and the inhibition of β-catenin transcriptional activity caused by 1,25(OH)(2)D(3). Importantly, the expression of JMJD3 correlated directly with that of VDR and inversely with that of SNAI1 in a series of 96 human colon tumours. Our results indicate for the first time that an epigenetic gene coding for a histone demethylase such as JMJD3 is a VDR co-target that partially mediates the effects of 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) on human colon.

Vitamin D has wide regulatory effects on histone demethylase genes

Vitamin D from the diet or synthesized in the skin upon UV-B irradiation is converted in the organism into the active metabolite 1α,25- dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3, calcitriol], a pleiotropic hormone with wide regulatory actions. The classical model of 1,25(OH)2D3 action implies the activation of the vitamin D receptor, which binds specific DNA sequences in its target genes and modulates their transcription rate. We have recently shown that 1,25(OH)2D3 induces the expression of the JMJD3 gene coding for a histone demethylase that is involved in epigenetic regulation. JMJD3 mediates the effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 on a subset of target genes and affects the expression of ZEB1, ZEB2 and SNAI1, inducers of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Novel data indicate that 1,25(OH)2D3 has an unanticipated wide regulatory action on the expression of genes coding for histone demethylases of the Jumonji C (JmjC) domain and lysine-specific demethylase (LSD) families. Moreover, JMJD3 knockdown decreases the expression of miR‑200b and miR‑200c, two microRNAs targeting ZEB1 RNA. This may explain the upregulation of this transcription factor found in JMJD3-depleted cells. Thus, 1,25(OH)2D3 exerts an ample regulatory effect on the expression of histone-modifying enzymes involved in epigenetic regulation that may mediate its actions on gene transcription and cell phenotype.

Vitamin D Is a Multilevel Repressor of Wnt/b-Catenin Signaling in Cancer Cells

The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is abnormally activated in most colorectal cancers and in a proportion of other neoplasias. This activation initiates or contributes to carcinogenesis by regulating the expression of a large number of genes in tumor cells. The active vitamin D metabolite 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) inhibits Wnt/β-catenin signaling by several mechanisms at different points along the pathway. Additionally, paracrine actions of 1,25(OH)2D3 on stromal cells may also repress this pathway in neighbouring tumor cells. Here we review the molecular basis for the various mechanisms by which 1,25(OH)2D3 antagonizes Wnt/β-catenin signaling, preferentially in human colon carcinoma cells, and the consequences of this inhibition for the phenotype and proliferation rate. The effect of the vitamin D system on Wnt/β-catenin signaling and tumor growth in animal models will also be commented in detail. Finally, we revise existing data on the relation between vitamin D receptor expression and vitamin D status and the expression of Wnt/β-catenin pathway genes and targets in cancer patients.

SPROUTY-2 and E-cadherin regulate reciprocally and dictate colon cancer cell tumourigenicity

SPROUTY-2 (SPRY2) regulates receptor tyrosine kinase signalling and therefore cell growth and differentiation. In this study, we show that SPRY2 expression in colon cancer cells is inhibited by the active vitamin D metabolite 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) through E-cadherin-dependent and -independent mechanisms. In turn, SPRY2 represses both basal and 1,25(OH)2D3-induced E-cadherin expression. In line with this, SPRY2 induces ZEB1 RNA and protein, but not that of other epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition inducers that repress the CDH1/E-cadherin promoter. Consistently, SPRY2 and E-cadherin protein levels inversely correlate in colon cancer cell lines and xenografted tumours. Moreover, SPRY2 knockdown by small hairpin RNA increases CDH1/E-cadherin expression and, reciprocally, CDH1/E-cadherin knockdown increases that of SPRY2. In colon cancer patients, SPRY2 is upregulated in undifferentiated high-grade tumours and at the invasive front of low-grade carcinomas. Quantification of protein expression in 34 tumours confirmed an inverse correlation between SPRY2 and E-cadherin. Our data demonstrate a tumourigenic action of SPRY2 that is based on the repression of E-cadherin, probably by the induction of ZEB1, and a reciprocal regulation of SPRY2 and E-cadherin that dictates cell phenotype. We propose SPRY2 as a candidate novel marker for high-grade tumours and a target of therapeutic intervention in colon cancer.

TWIST1 Is Expressed in Colorectal Carcinomas and Predicts Patient Survival

TWIST1 is a transcription factor that belongs to the family of basic helix-loop-helix proteins involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and invasion processes. The TWIST1 protein possesses oncogenic, drug-resistant, angiogenic and invasive properties, and has been related with several human tumors and other pathologies. Colorectal cancer is one of the tumors in which TWIST1 is over-expressed, but its involvement in the clinical outcome of the disease is still unclear. We tested, by RT-PCR, the expression levels of TWIST1 in normal and tumor paired-sample tissues from a series of 151 colorectal cancer patients, in order to investigate its prognostic value as a tumor marker. TWIST1 expression was restricted to tumor tissues (86.1%) and correlated with lymph node metastasis (LNM). Adjusted analysis showed that the expression levels of TWIST1 correlated with overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS). Importantly, TWIST1 expression levels predicted OS specifically at stages I and II. Moreover, patients with stage II tumors and high TWIST1 levels showed even shorter survival than patients with stage III tumors. These results suggest that TWIST1 expression levels could be a tumor indicator in stage II patients and help select patients at greater risk of poor prognosis who might benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy.