María S. Carlo

Native Spanish-Speaking Children Reading in English: Toward a Model of Comprehension

A structural equation model of second language (L2; English) reading comprehension was tested on a sample of 135 Spanish-speaking 4th-grade English-language learners (ELLs). The model included 2 levels: decoding and oral language. English decoding measures included alphabetic knowledge and fluency. English oral language measures included vocabulary knowledge and listening comprehension. The model had reasonable goodness of fit. Decoding skills played a less predictive role than oral language proficiency. L2 listening comprehension made an independent, proximal contribution to L2 reading comprehension, whereas L2 vocabulary knowledge assumed both proximal and distal relationships with L2 reading comprehension. Results suggest that, given adequate L2 decoding ability, L2 vocabulary knowledge is crucial for improved English reading comprehension outcomes for Spanish-speaking ELLs.

Techniques and Procedures for Assessing Cognitive Skills

The intent of the article is to survey procedures that could be used to assess progress in instructional programs designed to enhance cognitive skills. The organizational framework is provided by J. R. Anderson’s (1982) theory of cognitive skill development and by Glaser, Lesgold, and Lajoie’s (1985) categorization of dimensions of cognitive skills. After describing Anderson’s theory, the article discusses the following types of measures of cognitive skills: (a) measures of knowledge acquisition, organization, and structure; (b) measures of depth of problem representation; (c) measures of mental models; (d) measures of metacognitive skills; (e) measures of the automaticity of performance; and (f) measures of efficiency of procedures. Each of the sections describing measurement procedures is followed by a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the procedures. The article closes with a general discussion of techniques for measuring cognitive skills.

The intriguing role of Spanish language vocabulary knowledge in predicting English reading comprehension

This study explored a holistic model of English reading comprehension among a sample of 135 Spanish-English bilingual Latina and Latino 4th-grade students This model took into account Spanish language reading skills and language of initial literacy instruction. Controlling for language of instruction, English decoding skill, and English oral language proficiency, the authors explored the effects of Spanish language alphabetic knowledge, fluency, vocabulary knowledge, and listening comprehension on English reading comprehension. Results revealed a significant main effect for Spanish vocabulary knowledge and an interaction between Spanish vocabulary and English fluency, such that faster English readers benefited more from Spanish vocabulary knowledge than their less fluent counterparts. This study demonstrates the existence of literary skills transfer from the 1st to the 2nd language, as well as limits on such transfer.

Bilingual Phonological Awareness: Multilevel Construct Validation among Spanish-Speaking Kindergarteners in Transitional Bilingual Education Classrooms.

The construct validity of English and Spanish phonological awareness (PA) tasks was examined with a sample of 812 kindergarten children from 71 transitional bilingual education program classrooms located in 3 different types of geographic regions in California and Texas. Tasks of PA, including blending nonwords, segmenting words, and phoneme elision, were measured in Spanish and in English and analyzed via multilevel confirmatory factor analysis at the task level. Results showed that the PA tasks defined a unitary construct at both the student and classroom levels in each language. English and Spanish PA factors were related to each other (.93 and .83 at the student and classroom levels, respectively) as well as to word reading, both within languages (correlations estimated between .74 and .93) and across languages (correlations estimated between .47 and .79). Although the PA constructs were statistically separable in each language, the high correlation between Spanish and English PA indicates considerable overlap in these abilities.

The role of language of instruction and vocabulary in the English phonological awareness of Spanish–English bilingual children

This study explores influences on bilingual childrens phonological awareness (PA) performance in English, examining the role of language of instruction and vocabulary. English monolingual and Spanish–English bilingual kindergartners and first graders receiving either English or Spanish literacy instruction were assessed in English PA and in English and Spanish vocabulary, as appropriate. Spanish-instructed bilinguals were more likely than English-instructed bilinguals or English monolinguals to treat diphthongs as two units, reflecting their analysis in Spanish phonology and orthography. Surprisingly, unbalanced bilinguals dominant in either English or Spanish scored better on English PA than children with approximately equal scores on the English and the Spanish vocabulary test. This finding suggests that familiarity with many lexical items within a language constitutes a source of analyzable phonological knowledge.

Development of a cognate awareness measure for Spanish-speaking English language learners

This paper describes the development and validation of the Cognate Awareness Test (CAT), which measures cognate awareness in Spanish-speaking English Language Learners (ELLs) in fourth and fifth grade. An investigation of differential performance on the two subtests of the CAT (cognates and noncognates) provides evidence that the instrument is sensitive to English—Spanish cognate awareness among elementary school-age Spanish-speaking ELLs. Cognates were highly correlated with the childrens Spanish WLPB-R Picture Vocabulary scores, whereas noncognates were highly correlated to childrens English WLPB-R Picture Vocabulary scores.

Sustained vocabulary-learning strategy instruction for english-language learners

Contents: Preface. M.L. Kamil, E.H. Hiebert, Teaching and Learning Vocabulary: Perspectives and Persistent Issues. Part I: Perspectives on How Vocabulary Is Learned. W. Nagy, Why Vocabulary Instruction Needs to Be Long-Term and Comprehensive. A.E. Cunningham, Vocabulary Growth Through Independent Reading and Reading Aloud to Children. J.A. Scott, Creating Opportunities to Acquire New World Meanings From Text. Part II: Instruction and Interventions That Enhance Vocabulary. S.A. Stahl, Four Problems With Teaching Word Meanings and What to Do to Make Vocabulary an Integral Part of Instruction. M. Calderon, D. August, R. Slavin, D. Duran, N. Madden, A. Cheung, Bringing Words to Life in Classrooms With English Language Learners. M.S. Carlo, D. August, C.E. Snow, Sustained Vocabulary-Learning Strategy Instruction for English-Language Learners. P.J. Schwanenflugel, C.E. Hamilton, B.A. Bradley, H.P. Ruston, S. Neuharth-Pritchett, M.A. Restrepo, Classroom Practices for Vocabulary Enhancement in Prekindergarten: Lessons From PAVEd for Success. J.F. Baumann, G. Font, E.C. Edwards, E. Boland, Strategies for Teaching Middle-Grade Students to Use Word-Part and Context Clues to Expand Reading Vocabulary. Part III: Perspectives on Which Words to Choose for Instruction. I.L. Beck, M.G. McKeown, L. Kucan, Choosing Words to Teach. A. Biemiller, Size and Sequence in Vocabulary Development: Implications for Choosing Words for Primary Grade Vocabulary Instruction. E.H. Hiebert, In Pursuit of an Effective, Efficient Vocabulary Curriculum for Elementary Students.

Development and Validation of Extract the Base: An English Derivational Morphology Test for Third through Fifth Grade Monolingual Students and Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners.

This study describes the development and validation of the Extract the Base test (ETB), which assesses derivational morphological awareness. Scores on this test were validated for 580 monolingual students and 373 Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs) in third through fifth grade. As part of the validation of the internal structure, which involved using the Generalized Partial Credit Model for tests with polytomous items, items on this test were shown to provide information about students of different abilities and also discriminate amongst such heterogeneous students. As part of the validation of the test’s relationship to criterion, items were shown to correlate with measures of word identification, reading comprehension, and vocabulary measures. Differences in performances for fluent English students and ELLs, students of varied home language environments, and different grade levels were noted. Additionally, the task was validated using a dichotomous scoring system to provide reliability and validity information using this alternate scoring method.

Assessing Language Comprehension Skills In Cross-Cultural Settings

Abstract This chapter describes the Sentence Verification Technique (SVT): a technique for measuring language comprehension that has proven to be useful in several cross-cultural settings. The early sections of the chapter present the theoretical rationale for SVT tests as a measure of comprehension and provide a description of how SVT tests are developed. Later sections of the chapter discuss pitfalls associated with assessing language comprehension in cross-cultural settings and suggest how the use of SVT tests may avoid those pitfalls. The paper closes with a description of cross-cultural studies using the SVT procedure that have been conducted in the United States, Grenada, Belize, Guatemala, and Nepal.

Language of Instruction as a Moderator for Transfer of Reading Comprehension Skills among Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners.

This three-year longitudinal study investigated the role of language of instruction in moderating the relationships between initial levels of English oral language proficiency and Spanish reading comprehension and growth in English reading comprehension. The study followed Spanish-speaking English language learners in English-only literacy instruction, an early-exit bilingual program, or a late-exit bilingual program, from third through fifth grade. Students in all groups experienced significant growth in English reading comprehension. For the English-only group, initial levels of Spanish reading comprehension were not related to growth in English reading comprehension. However, for students in the two bilingually instructed groups, those who began with stronger Spanish reading comprehension skills grew faster in English reading comprehension than students without initial strong Spanish reading comprehension skills.