Marianne Ojo

Practical Training and the Audit Expectations Gap: The Case of Accounting Undergraduates of Universiti Utara Malaysia

The accounting profession has long faced the issue of an audit expectations gap; being the gap between the quality of the profession’s performance, its objectives and results, and that which the society expects. The profession believes that the gap could be reduced over time through education. Studies have been carried out overseas and in Malaysia to determine the effect of education in narrowing the audit expectations gap. Extending the knowledge acquired, this paper investigates whether academic internship programs could reduce the audit expectations gap in Malaysia. Using a pre-post method, the research instrument adapted from Ferguson et al. (2000) is administered to the Universiti Utara Malaysia’s accounting students at the beginning and end of their internship program. The results show there is a significant change in perceptions among students after the internship program. However, changes in perceptions do not warrant an internship program as a means of reducing the audit expectations gap as misperceptions are still found among respondents on issues of auditing after the completion of the internship program. Nevertheless, an internship program can still be used to complement audit education in a university as it is an ideal way to expose students to professional issues and enables them to have a better insight of the actual performance and duties of auditors.

Preparing for Basel IV – Why Liquidity Risks Still Present a Challenge to Regulators in Prudential Supervision

This paper considers and assesses various explanations attributed as principal factors of the recent Financial Crisis. In particular, it focuses on two principal regulatory tools which constitute the basis of the framework promulgated by recent Basel Committees initiatives, that is, Basel III. These two regulatory tools being capital and liquidity requirements. Various conclusions have been put forward to explain what triggered the recent Financial Crisis. This paper aims to explain why the Basel Committees liquidity requirements and present proposals aimed at addressing liquidity risks, still represent a very modest milestone in efforts aimed at addressing challenges in prudential regulation and supervision. Even though problems attributed to capital adequacy requirements are considered by many authorities to have triggered the recent Crisis, the paper will highlight how runs on banks are triggered by liquidity crises and that liquidity risks cannot be isolated from systemic risks. In so doing, it will incorporate the roles assumed by information asymmetries and market based regulation - hence elaborate on how market based regulation could serve to address problems which trigger liquidity risks. Imperfect knowledge being a factor which is contributory to liquidity crises and bank runs, and market based regulation being essential in facilitating disclosure - since the Basel Committees focus on banks and prudential supervision cannot on its own, address the challenges encountered in the present regulatory environment. Furthermore, it will address measures and proposals which could serve as bases for future regulatory reforms - as well as criticisms and challenges still encountered by recent Basel Committee initiatives.

Analyzing the Relationship between Corporate Social Responsibility and Foreign Direct Investment

The decisions a corporation makes affect more than just its stakeholders and can have wide social, environmental, and economic consequences. The notion of corporate social responsibility (CSR) describes the relationship between a business and society as a whole, considering all tangential effects of business. This facilitates a business environment built around practical regulations and transparency necessary to ensure ethical and responsible business practice.This volume is not only aimed at highlighting the relationship between Corporate Social Responsibility and Foreign Direct Investment – as reflected through components of Carroll’s pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility, that is, economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities;but also incorporates the consideration of other vital facets and variables which require a re-think in the elevation of their priorities within the sphere of Corporate Social Responsibility. Such vital elements which comprise environmental factors, poverty alleviation – in addition to geo political factors and pivotal macroeconomic variables.

Redefining a Role for Central Banks: The Increased Importance of Central Banks’ Roles in the Management of Liquidity Risks and Macro Prudential Supervision in the Aftermath of the Financial Crisis

Over the recent years, it has increasingly been acknowledged that macro prudential policies are not only considered to be “a missing ingredient from the current policy framework�?, but that there has also been “too huge a gap between macro economic policy and the regulation of individual financial institutions.�? The link between monetary policy and macro prudential policies, the knowledge of central banks in matters relating to information on market conditions and their oversight of payment systems, as well as the need to bridge the existing gap between supervisory authorities and central banks whilst executing their supervisory roles and functions, have necessitated an extension of central banks role in the management of liquidity risks and macro prudential supervision. A fundamental aim of this paper is to address how an extension of central banks’ roles in macro prudential supervision can assist regulators and supervisors in bridging the aforementioned gap between macro economic policy and the regulation of individual financial institutions. In so doing, the need for greater focus on macro prudential factors, namely, the system as a whole, as opposed to mere focus on the supervision of individual institutions will be highlighted. The expertise and knowledge with which a central bank is endowed in its role as overseer of the entire payments system – as well as the quality of information which it has access to, are some of those factors which add weight to its ability to bridge “the gap�?.

Measures Aimed at Mitigating Pro Cyclical Effects of the Capital Requirements Framework: Counter Cyclical Capital Buffer Proposals

As well as highlighting the importance of introducing counter cyclical capital buffers, this paper draws attention to the need for greater focus on “more forward looking provisions�?, as well as provisions which are aimed at addressing losses and unforeseen problems attributed to “maturity transformation of short-term deposits into long term loans.�? Whilst the need for forward looking provisioning has been echoed by some authorities on the literature, the paper also adds weight to the argument through its attempt to link such an argument to the ever increasing prominence assumed by liquidity risks - since liquidity also contributes to pro cyclicality. “The complex response of financial institutions to deteriorating market conditions - which to a large extent, is attributed to liquidity shortfalls which reflected on and off balance sheet maturity mismatches and excessive levels of leverage, has resulted in an increasingly important role for liquidity provided by central banks in the funding of bank balance sheets.�? Owing to such increased importance of liquidity risks, this paper also attempts to highlight why the Basel Committee’s Counter Cyclical Buffer Proposal - a response to the recent financial crisis (which to a significant extent, focuses on banking sector capital requirements), should also take greater account of more forward looking provisions. In so doing, it draws attention to the importance of coupling forward looking provisions (as well as other measures) with counter cyclical charges and why this provides a better alternative to the mere introduction of counter cyclical capital charges.

Sarbanes Oxley, Non Audit Services (NAS) and the mandatory rotation of audit firms

Whilst the benefits and potentials of the dual roles assumed by external auditors are emphasized, as well as the need to ensure that safeguards operating to guard against a compromise of objectivity and independence are in place, this paper also highlights the fact that even though such dual roles are appropriate in certain cases – as illustrated by justifications for limitations imposed by the Sarbanes Oxley Act and other relevant and applicable legislation – instances also persist where section 201 of Sarbanes-Oxley, with regard to internal audit outsourcing, may have been over-reactionary and may continue to hinder both companies and their auditors.

Capital, liquidity standards and macro prudential policy tools in financial supervision: addressing sovereign debt problems

During the recent Financial Crisis, as well as the 2010 and ongoing European Sovereign Debt Crisis, several governments had/have had to raise their debt levels in order to stabilize their economies. The principal problem attributed to sovereign debts, which is linked to their characteristics, is the possibility of defaults occurring in relation to these – since they are usually accompanied without collaterals. The possibilities of such defaults occurring are further increased where bailouts are granted in relation to these debts. Increased doubts in relation to the likelihood of larger sovereigns “rolling over maturing debt on their own�?, as well as the consequential occurrence of “very high, economically penalizing, interest rates�?, is considered to be the present reality. This paper aims to illustrate why distressed countries, once granted bail-outs, should be given full assurance (by grantors of the bail-outs) that continued assistance will be provided in the form of accompanying aids to assist in completing repayments relating to such bailouts (through the extension of repayment periods or reduced interest rates) – rather than aggravating their position (hence facilitating the risk of defaults). As well as a consideration of improvements which have been introduced through Basel III in respect of prudential supervisory tools (supervisory tools such as capital, liquidity requirements, and macro prudential policy tools), and an analysis of recent efforts which have been undertaken by the Basel Committee to address information gaps in derivative markets (a source of huge losses to many major banks), the paper also explores how the new Basel liquidity standards (that is, the Liquid Coverage Ratio (LCR) and the Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR), could be effectively implemented in mitigating sovereign debt crises. Ultimately, the paper will seek to demonstrate that additional leverage ratios which are to be introduced by the Basel Committee, will play a very crucial role if the new liquidity standards are to achieve their desired effects and stated objectives.

Development of Auditing in Malaysia: Legal, Political and Historical Influences

This work investigates the role and contribution of external auditing as practised in the Malaysian society during the forty year period from independence in 1957 to just before the onset of the Asian Financial Crisis in 1997. It applies the political economic theory introduced by Tinker (1980) and refined by Cooper & Sherer (1984), which focuses on the social relations aspects of professional activity rather than economic forces alone. In a case study format where qualitative data was gathered mainly from primary and secondary source materials, the study found that the function of auditing in the Malaysian society in most cases is devoid of any essence of mission; instead it is created, shaped and transformed by the pressures which give rise to its development over time. The largely insignificant role that it serves is intertwined within the contexts in which it operates.

Engaging Non Governmental Organizations and Actors in Sustainable Development: The Role of Environmental Accounting

Amongst several initiatives aimed at contributing to current and present literature on the topic of sustainable development, this presentation aims to highlight why anticipated and expected success was not generated as expected in previous protocols, conferences and climate conventions such as the Kyoto Protocol. Major and fundamental challenges to environmental sustainability – expanding beyond the scope of traditional concerns which are affiliated to free trade. Further, it aims to illustrate how the concepts and definitions attributed to the term “sustainable development�? has expanded over the years to embrace more concepts and actors which were not catered for in original concepts and definitions – as well as their relevance to the evolving need to embrace non-governmental actors and organizations in achieving sustainable development.

Boeing-Bombardier Trade Dispute: An Indication of the Growing Importance of Regional Agreements?

“………in the long run, the lack of commitment to multilateral trade that sank the Doha round this week, will also start to corrode the trading system as a whole……. America, the animating spirit behind earlier trade rounds, declared that a bad deal was worse than no deal at all – and meant it…. The underlying rationale of unilateral trade liberalization had been buried and forgotten long ago.” (The Economist, 2006a) The Uruguay and Doha trade rounds of agreements, do not only accentuate the difficulties of multilateral trade agreements, but also highlight the growing importance of regional agreements. In a phase where new territory is being experienced – particularly with the need for the United States to address its current account deficit, will it be willing to compromise in any deals involving America’s interest – in favor of diplomatic relations or will it stick to the widely held principle in Washington that “no deal at all is better than a bad deal”? Or will the United Kingdom’s involvement in the present trade dispute involving Bombardier and Boeing bring about an unprecedented and unexpected turn in events?“………in the long run, the lack of commitment to multilateral trade that sank the Doha round this week, will also start to corrode the trading system as a whole……. America, the animating spirit behind earlier trade rounds, declared that a bad deal was worse than no deal at all – and meant it…. The underlying rationale of unilateral trade liberalization had been buried and forgotten long ago.�? (The Economist, 2006a). The Uruguay and Doha trade rounds of agreements, do not only accentuate the difficulties of multilateral trade agreements, but also highlight the growing importance of regional agreements. In a phase where new territory is being experienced – particularly with the need for the United States to address its current account deficit, will it be willing to compromise in any deals involving America’s interest – in favor of diplomatic relations or will it stick to the widely held principle in Washington that “no deal at all is better than a bad deal�?? Or will the United Kingdom’s involvement in the present trade dispute involving Bombardier and Boeing bring about an unprecedented and unexpected turn in events?