Marie Couderc

Genetic basis of pearl millet adaptation along an environmental gradient investigated by a combination of genome scan and association mapping

Identifying the molecular bases of adaptation is a key issue in evolutionary biology. Genome scan is an efficient approach for identifying important molecular variation involved in adaptation. Association mapping also offers an opportunity to gain insight into genotype–phenotype relationships. Using these two approaches coupled with environmental data should help to come up with a refined picture of the evolutionary process underlying adaptation. In this study, we first conducted a selection scan analysis on a transcription factor gene family. We focused on the MADS‐box gene family, a gene family which plays a crucial role in vegetative and flower development. Twenty‐one pearl millet populations were sampled along an environmental gradient in West Africa. We identified one gene, i.e. PgMADS11, using Bayesian analysis to detect selection signatures. Polymorphism at this gene was also associated with flowering time variation in an association mapping framework. Finally, we found that PgMADS11 allele frequencies were closely associated with annual rainfall. Overall, we determined an efficient way to detect functional polymorphisms associated with climate variation in non‐model plants by combining genome scan and association mapping. These results should help monitor the impact of recent climatic changes on plant adaptation.

Evolutionary History of Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum [L.] R. Br.) and Selection on Flowering Genes since Its Domestication

The plant domestication process is associated with considerable modifications of plant phenotype. The identification of the genetic basis of this adaptation is of great interest for evolutionary biology. One of the methods used to identify such genes is the detection of signatures of selection. However, domestication is generally associated with major demographic effects. It is therefore crucial to disentangle the effects of demography and selection on diversity. In this study, we investigated selection in a flowering time pathway during domestication of pearl millet. We first used a random set of 20 genes to model pearl millet domestication using approximate Bayesian computation. This analysis showed that a model with exponential growth and wild-cultivated gene flow was well supported by our data set. Under this model, the domestication date of pearl millet is estimated at around 4,800 years ago. We assessed selection in 15 pearl millet DNA sequences homologous to flowering time genes and showed that these genes underwent selection more frequently than expected. We highlighted significant signatures of selection in six pearl millet flowering time genes associated with domestication or improvement of pearl millet. Moreover, higher deviations from neutrality were found for circadian clock-associated genes. Our study provides new insights into the domestication process of pearl millet and shows that a category of genes of the flowering pathway were preferentially selected during pearl millet domestication.

Phylogeography and niche modelling of the relict plant Amborella trichopoda (Amborellaceae) reveal multiple Pleistocene refugia in New Caledonia

Amborella trichopoda Baill. (Amborellaceae, Amborellales), the sole living member of the sister group to all other extant angiosperms, is endemic to New Caledonia. We addressed the intraspecific phylogeography of Amborella by investigating whether its present population genetic structure could be related to its current and past habitats. We found moderate range‐wide genetic diversity based on nuclear microsatellite data and detected four well‐differentiated, geographically distinct genetic groups using Bayesian clustering analyses. We modelled the ecological niche of Amborella based on the current climatic and environmental conditions. The predictive ability of the model was very good throughout the Central East mainland zone, but Amborella was predicted in the northern part of the island where this plant has not been reported. Furthermore, no significant barrier was detected based on habitat suitability that could explain the genetic differentiation across the area. Conversely, we found that the main genetic clusters could be related to the distribution of the suitable habitat at the last glacial maximum (LGM, c. 21 000 years BP), when Amborella experienced a dramatic 96.5% reduction in suitable area. At least two lineages survived in distinct putative refugia located in the Massif des Lèvres and in the vicinity of Mount Aoupinié. Our findings finally confirmed the importance of LGM rainforest refugia in shaping the current intra‐ and interspecific diversity in New Caledonian plants and revealed the possibility of an as yet unreported refugium. The combination of niche modelling and population genetics thereby offered novel insight into the biogeographical history of an emblematic taxon.

MoccaDB - an integrative database for functional, comparative and diversity studies in the Rubiaceae family.

BackgroundIn the past few years, functional genomics information has been rapidly accumulating on Rubiaceae species and especially on those belonging to the Coffea genus (coffee trees). An increasing number of expressed sequence tag (EST) data and EST- or genomic-derived microsatellite markers have been generated, together with Conserved Ortholog Set (COS) markers. This considerably facilitates comparative genomics or map-based genetic studies through the common use of orthologous loci across different species. Similar genomic information is available for e.g. tomato or potato, members of the Solanaceae family. Since both Rubiaceae and Solanaceae belong to the Euasterids I (lamiids) integration of information on genetic markers would be possible and lead to more efficient analyses and discovery of key loci involved in important traits such as fruit development, quality, and maturation, or adaptation. Our goal was to develop a comprehensive web data source for integrated information on validated orthologous markers in Rubiaceae.DescriptionMoccaDB is an online MySQL-PHP driven relational database that houses annotated and/or mapped microsatellite markers in Rubiaceae. In its current release, the database stores 638 markers that have been defined on 259 ESTs and 379 genomic sequences. Marker information was retrieved from 11 published works, and completed with original data on 132 microsatellite markers validated in our laboratory. DNA sequences were derived from three Coffea species/hybrids. Microsatellite markers were checked for similarity, in vitro tested for cross-amplification and diversity/polymorphism status in up to 38 Rubiaceae species belonging to the Cinchonoideae and Rubioideae subfamilies. Functional annotation was provided and some markers associated with described metabolic pathways were also integrated. Users can search the database for marker, sequence, map or diversity information through multi-option query forms. The retrieved data can be browsed and downloaded, along with protocols used, using a standard web browser. MoccaDB also integrates bioinformatics tools (CMap viewer and local BLAST) and hyperlinks to related external data sources (NCBI GenBank and PubMed, SOL Genomic Network database).ConclusionWe believe that MoccaDB will be extremely useful for all researchers working in the areas of comparative and functional genomics and molecular evolution, in general, and population analysis and association mapping of Rubiaceae and Solanaceae species, in particular.

Association studies including genotype by environment interactions: prospects and limits

BackgroundAssociation mapping studies offer great promise to identify polymorphisms associated with phenotypes and for understanding the genetic basis of quantitative trait variation. To date, almost all association mapping studies based on structured plant populations examined the main effects of genetic factors on the trait but did not deal with interactions between genetic factors and environment. In this paper, we propose a methodological prospect of mixed linear models to analyze genotype by environment interaction effects using association mapping designs. First, we simulated datasets to assess the power of linear mixed models to detect interaction effects. This simulation was based on two association panels composed of 90 inbreds (pearl millet) and 277 inbreds (maize).ResultsBased on the simulation approach, we reported the impact of effect size, environmental variation, allele frequency, trait heritability, and sample size on the power to detect the main effects of genetic loci and diverse effect of interactions implying these loci. Interaction effects specified in the model included SNP by environment interaction, ancestry by environment interaction, SNP by ancestry interaction and three way interactions. The method was finally used on real datasets from field experiments conducted on the two considered panels. We showed two types of interactions effects contributing to genotype by environment interactions in maize: SNP by environment interaction and ancestry by environment interaction. This last interaction suggests differential response at the population level in function of the environment.ConclusionsOur results suggested the suitability of mixed models for the detection of diverse interaction effects. The need of samples larger than that commonly used in current plant association studies is strongly emphasized to ensure rigorous model selection and powerful interaction assessment. The use of ancestry interaction component brought valuable information complementary to other available approaches.

Clonal diversity and estimation of relative clone age: application to agrobiodiversity of yam (Dioscorea rotundata)

BackgroundClonal propagation is a particular reproductive system found in both the plant and animal kingdoms, from human parasites to clonally propagated crops. Clonal diversity provides information about plant and animal evolutionary history, i.e. how clones spread, or the age of a particular clone. In plants, this could provide valuable information about agrobiodiversity dynamics and more broadly about the evolutionary history of a particular crop. We studied the evolutionary history of yam, Dioscorea rotundata. In Africa, Yam is cultivated by tuber clonal propagation.ResultsWe used 12 microsatellite markers to identify intra-clonal diversity in yam varieties. We then used this diversity to assess the relative ages of clones. Using simulations, we assessed how Approximate Bayesian Computation could use clonal diversity to estimate the age of a clone depending on the size of the sample, the number of independent samples and the number of markers. We then applied this approach to our particular dataset and showed that the relative ages of varieties could be estimated, and that each variety could be ranked by age.ConclusionsWe give a first estimation of clone age in an approximate Bayesian framework. However the precise estimation of clone age depends on the precision of the mutation rate. We provide useful information on agrobiodiversity dynamics and suggest recurrent creation of varietal diversity in a clonally propagated crop.

The chloroplast DNA locus psbZ-trnfM as a potential barcode marker in Phoenix L. (Arecaceae)

Abstract The genus Phoenix (Arecaceae) comprises 14 species distributed from Cape Verde Islands to SE Asia. It includes the economically important species Phoenix dactylifera. The paucity of differential morphological and anatomical useful characters, and interspecific hybridization, make identification of Phoenix species difficult. In this context, the development of reliable DNA markers for species and hybrid identification would be of great utility. Previous studies identified a 12 bp polymorphic chloroplast minisatellite in the trnG (GCC)-trnfM (CAU) spacer, and showed its potential for species identification in Phoenix. In this work, in order to develop an efficient DNA barcode marker for Phoenix, a longer cpDNA region (700 bp) comprising the mentioned minisatellite, and located between the psbZ and trnfM (CAU) genes, was sequenced. One hundred and thirty-six individuals, representing all Phoenix species except P. andamanensis,were analysed. The minisatellite showed 2-7 repetitions of the 12 bp motif, with 1-3 out of seven haplotypes per species. Phoenix reclinata and P. canariensis had species-specific haplotypes. Additional polymorphisms were found in the flanking regions of the minisatellite, including substitutions, indels and homopolymers. All this information allowed us to identify unambiguously eight out of the 13 species, and overall 80% of the individuals sampled. Phoenix rupicola and P. theophrasti had the same haplotype, and so had P. atlantica, P. dactylifera, and P. sylvestris (the “date palm complex” sensu Pintaud et al. 2013). For these species, additional molecular markers will be required for their unambiguous identification. The psbZ-trnfM (CAU) region therefore could be considered as a good basis for the establishment of a DNA barcoding system in Phoenix, and is potentially useful for the identification of the female parent in Phoenix hybrids.

Genome scan reveals selection acting on genes linked to stress response in wild pearl millet

Uncovering genomic regions involved in adaption is a major goal in evolutionary biology. High‐throughput sequencing now makes it possible to tackle this challenge in nonmodel species. Yet, despite the increasing number of methods targeted to specifically detect genomic footprints of selection, the complex demography of natural populations often causes high rates of false positive in gene discoveries. The aim of this study was to identify climate adaptations in wild pearl millet populations, Cenchrus americanus ssp. monodii. We focused on two climate gradients, one in Mali and one in Niger. We used a two‐step strategy to limit false‐positive outliers. First, we considered gradients as biological replicates and performed RNA sequencing of four populations at the extremities. We combined four methods—three based on differentiation among populations and one based on diversity patterns within populations—to identify outlier SNPs from a set of 87 218 high‐quality SNPs. Among 11 155 contigs of pearl millet reference transcriptome, 540 exhibited selection signals as evidenced by at least one of the four methods. In a second step, we genotyped 762 samples in 11 additional populations distributed along the gradients using SNPs from the detected contigs and random SNPs as control. We further assessed selection on this large data set using a differentiation‐based method and a method based on correlations with environmental variables based. Four contigs displayed consistent signatures between the four extreme and 11 additional populations, two of which were linked to abiotic and biotic stress responses.

Genotyping-by-Sequencing SNP Identification for Crops without a Reference Genome: Using Transcriptome Based Mapping as an Alternative Strategy

Next-generation sequencing opens the way for genomic studies of diversity even for non-model crops and animals. Genome reduction techniques are becoming progressively more popular as they allow a fraction of the genome to be sequenced for multiple individuals and/or populations. These techniques are an efficient way to explore genome diversity in non-model crops and animals for which no reference genome is available. Genome reduction techniques emerged with the development of specific pipelines such as UNEAK (Universal Network Enabled Analysis Kit) and Stacks. However, even for non-model crops and animals, transcriptomes are easier to obtain, thereby making it possible to directly map reads. We investigate the direct use of transcriptome as an alternative strategy. Our specific objective was to compare SNPs obtained from the UNEAK pipeline as well as SNPs obtained by directly mapping genotyping-by-sequencing reads on a transcriptome. We assessed the feasibility of both SNP datasets, UNEAK and transcriptome mapping, to investigate the diversity of 91 samples of wild pearl millet sampled across its distribution area. Both approaches produced several tens of thousands of single nucleotide variants, but differed in the way the variants were identified, leading to differences in the frequency spectrum associated with marked differences in the assessment of diversity. Difference in the frequency spectrum significantly biased a large set of diversity analyses as well as detection of selection approaches. However, whatever the approach, we found very similar inference of genetic structure, with three major genetic groups from West, Central, and East Africa. For non-model crops, using transcriptome data as a reference is thus a particularly promising way to obtain a more thorough analysis of datasets generated using genome reduction techniques.

Microsatellite markers for Amborella (Amborellaceae), a monotypic genus endemic to New Caledonia

UNLABELLED PREMISE OF THE STUDY Informative markers are required for assessing the diversity of Amborella trichopoda, the only species of its order, endemic to New Caledonia and considered to be the sister species to all flowering plants. Therefore, expressed sequence tag (EST)-based microsatellite markers were developed. • METHODS AND RESULTS Fifty-five microsatellite loci were characterized in 14896 putative unigenes, which were generated by assembling A. trichopoda ESTs from the public sequence database. Seventeen markers revealed polymorphism in 80 adult shrubs from three populations. The number of alleles per locus ranged from two to 12, with a total of 132 alleles scored. The mean expected heterozygosity per population ranged from 0.336 to 0.567. • CONCLUSIONS These markers offer an appropriate amount of variation to investigate genetic diversity structure, gene flow, and other conservation issues.