Marije Michel

Three languages, one ECHO: Cognate effects in trilingual word recognition

Research on bilingual word recognition suggests that lexical access is non-selective with respect to language, i.e., that word representations of both languages become active during recognition. One piece of evidence is that bilinguals recognise cognates (words that are identical or similar in form and meaning in two languages) faster than non-cognates. The present study used cognates to investigate whether the non-selective access hypothesis holds also for trilinguals and three languages. Dutch-English-German trilinguals carried out a lexical decision task in their third language (German). The word materials included purely German control words, “double” cognates that overlapped in Dutch and German, but not in English, and “triple” cognates with the same form and meaning in Dutch, German, and English. Faster RTs were found for Dutch-German cognates than for control words, but additionally, “triple” cognates were processed even faster than “double” cognates. The “triple” cognate effect was not influenced by whether the participants had previously read an English text. A control experiment with German monolinguals confirmed that the effect was not an artifact of uncontrolled stimulus characteristics. Thus, independent of context, both the native language and another foreign non-target language influenced target language comprehension in trilinguals. This supports a view of language non-selective access implying all languages known to an individual may affect word activation and recognition.

The Influence of Complexity in Monologic versus Dialogic Tasks in Dutch L2.

Abstract This study puts the Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson 2005) to the test with respect to its predictions of the effects of changes in task complexity (± few elements) and task condition (± monologic) on L2 performance. 44 learners of Dutch performed both a simple and a complex oral task in either a monologic or a dialogic condition. The performance of the L2 learners was analysed with regard to linguistic complexity, accuracy, and fluency. As predicted by the Cognition Hypothesis, the complex task generated more accurate though less fluent speech. Linguistic complexity, however, was only marginally affected. Dialogic tasks triggered more accurate and fluent output though it was structurally less complex. The interaction of task complexity and task condition showed effects on measures of accuracy only: in the monologic but not in the dialogic condition task complexity did promote accuracy. As a consequence, our results only partially support the Cognition Hypothesis.

MEASURING COGNITIVE TASK DEMANDS USING DUAL-TASK METHODOLOGY, SUBJECTIVE SELF-RATINGS, AND EXPERT JUDGMENTS: A Validation Study

This study explored the usefulness of dual-task methodology, self-ratings, and expert judgements in assessing task-generated cognitive demands as a way to provide validity evidence for manipulations of task complexity. The participants were 96 students and 61 ESL teachers. The students, 48 English native speakers and 48 ESL speakers, carried out simple and complex versions of three oral tasks – a picture narrative, a map task, and a decision-making task. Half of the students completed the tasks under a dual task condition. The remaining half performed the tasks under a single task condition without a secondary task. Participants in the single condition were asked to rate their perceived mental effort and task difficulty. The ESL teachers provided expert judgments of anticipated mental effort and task difficulty along with explanations for their ratings via an online questionnaire. As predicted, the more complex task versions were found and judged to pose greater cognitive effort on most measures.

Early childhood educators’ competences for supporting children’s academic language skills in Germany

This study investigates early childhood educators’ language training competence that is required to support childrens linguistic development. Hundred and forty-four early-years-professionals in Germany completed a computer-based assessment. We first tested knowledge of linguistic topics (e.g. morpho-syntax, developmental stages). Second, we probed their ability to make relevant linguistic observations in videotaped child–educator interactions. Third, we asked them to select adequate language interventions for the observed child. The participants’ knowledge and observing ability scores were slightly above 50% but they scored low in selecting effective interventions. More detailed analyses indicate that those with a higher level of secondary education outperformed low-educated early-years-professionals. Only those with intensive specialist training were better equipped to choose appropriate intervention methods. We discuss the results in light of the current German and (inter-) national practice of early childhood educators’ professional training and suggest a greater emphasis on linguistics and language awareness in their education.

Language at preschool in Europe : early years professionals in the spotlight

Over the past decades early years education throughout Europe has experienced large changes due to higher numbers of children attending centres for early childhood education and care (ECEC), a growing linguistic and cultural diversity in society and a shift from care to education, that is, preparing children for entry to primary school. These changes have created expectations from policy makers, researchers and parents for qualitatively high levels of ECEC. Language support for children at risk is often named as one of the key aspects of high-quality childcare because of its importance for a successful entry to and progression within the future educational career of a child. However, rather little is known about how early years professionals meet the linguistic expectations of twenty-first century Europe. The present special issue tries to fill this gap by giving a platform to five European investigations into language at preschool in Europe with a focus on early years educators’ competences, knowledge, skills, beliefs and needs. This introductory article aims at preparing the reader for the contributions that follow in this special issue. We first describe current policy and practice of language support in European ECEC with regard to children’s and educators’ needs. Afterwards we review all the contributions and provide a summary focusing on the diversity as well as the commonalities of the five investigations, before formulating an outlook for future work.

Eye-tracking research in computer-mediated language learning

Though eye-tracking technology has been used in reading research for over 100 years, researchers have only recently begun to use it in studies of computer-assisted language learning (CALL). This chapter provides an overview of eye-tracking research to date, which is relevant to computer-mediated language learning contexts.We first examine some of the foundational work, basic assumptions and key constructs in eye-tracking research and then explore uses of eye-tracking in second language (L2) educational contexts. We then examine the modest but growing amount of research in CALL settings and illustrate the technique’s facility for contributing to SLA-relevant CALL research. We touch on some of the known CALL-relevant eye-tracking research in progress and also discuss some of the challenges researchers are likely to encounter when employing eye-tracking techniques. We end with a discussion of possible future directions and developments for eye-tracking in CALL settings.