Marijk van der Wende

To Rank or to be Ranked: The Impact of Global Rankings in Higher Education

Global university rankings have cemented the notion of a world university market arranged in a single “league table” for comparative purposes and have given a powerful impetus to intranational and international competitive pressures in the sector. Both the research rankings by Shanghai Jiao Tong University and the composite rankings by the Times Higher Education Supplement have been widely publicised and already appear to have generated incentives in favour of greater system stratification and the concentration of elite researchers. However, global comparisons are possible only in relation to one model of institution, that of the comprehensive research intensive university, and for the most part are tailored to science-strong and English-speaking universities. Neither the Shanghai nor the Times rankings provide guidance on the quality of teaching. It is important to secure “clean” rankings, transparent, free of self-interest, and methodologically coherent, that create incentives to broad-based improvement.

Internationalisation policies: about new trends and contrasting paradigms

In this article, internationalisation of higher education is analysed as a response to globalisation. A distinction is made between two paradigms in internationalisation: competition and cooperation. The different approaches to internationalisation in the Anglo-Saxon countries on the one hand and in continental Europe on the other are analysed along the lines of these two paradigms. With respect to the role and position of continental Europe in the global higher education market the following questions are explored. Is there a real higher education market in Europe and if so for whom? Should and can European higher education actually compete internationally, and if so, is cooperation the right strategy to do so? It will be concluded that the effectiveness of cooperation and especially that of international university consortia in international competition is largely still hidden in the future. Furthermore, many questions still remain to be answered in order to improve our understanding of the international higher education market in terms of its segmentation and the related diversification of the higher education sector and its functions.In this article, internationalisation of higher education is analysed as a response to globalisation. A distinction is made between two paradigms in internationalisation: competition and cooperation. The different approaches to internationalisation in the Anglo-Saxon countries on the one hand and in continental Europe on the other are analysed along the lines of these two paradigms. With respect to the role and position of continental Europe in the global higher education market the following questions are explored. Is there a real higher education market in Europe and if so for whom? Should and can European higher education actually compete internationally, and if so, is cooperation the right strategy to do so? It will be concluded that the effectiveness of cooperation and especially that of international university consortia in international competition is largely still hidden in the future. Furthermore, many questions still remain to be answered in order to improve our understanding of the international higher education market in terms of its segmentation and the related diversification of the higher education sector and its functions.

Internationalization of Higher Education in the OECD Countries: Challenges and Opportunities for the Coming Decade

This article explores the possible development of internationalization of higher education in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, analyzing how the main driving forces may influence the internationalization process, globalization and the changing role of nation-states, regional and international bodies, and multilateral frameworks and agreements. The analysis is carried out based on four future scenarios for higher education developed by the OECD. Implications of various scenarios are analyzed in terms of their broader meaning for the main functions of higher education and issues of access, quality, and equity. Consequently, the implications for internationalization are derived. A special focus is placed on the consequences of the various scenarios for cooperation and competition as major strategic categories in the internationalization process. Finally, some further questions are raised with respect to the internationalization mission of higher education institutions in a globalized world and how the concept of internationalization may evolve.This article explores the possible development of internationalization of higher education in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, analyzing how the main driving forces may influence the internationalization process, globalization and the changing role of nation-states, regional and international bodies, and multilateral frameworks and agreements. The analysis is carried out based on four future scenarios for higher education developed by the OECD. Implications of various scenarios are analyzed in terms of their broader meaning for the main functions of higher education and issues of access, quality, and equity. Consequently, the implications for internationalization are derived. A special focus is placed on the consequences of the various scenarios for cooperation and competition as major strategic categories in the internationalization process. Finally, some further questions are raised with respect to the internationalization mission of higher education institutions in a globalized world and how the concept of internationalization may evolve.

Globalisation and Internationalisation: Policy Agendas Compared

In recent decades, the international dimension has gained importance in higher education policy. First of all, higher education trends have been increasingly analysed at the international level, with an important role played by international and intergovernmental organisations such as the OECD and UNESCO. On the academic side, these analyses have been supported by international comparative higher education research, carried out by research centres such as the Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS) in the Netherlands. Second, it has been acknowledged that government policies need to address the internationalisation of higher education directly, and should aim to move beyond existing schemes for academic mobility towards policies which encourage higher education institutions to internationalise their core functions. And third, the awareness has grown that policy initiatives are also needed at an international level.

Globalisation and Access to Higher Education.

This article addresses the growing demand for access to higher education and the conditions under which this is leading to a worldwide market. The supply of transnational (or cross-border) education and the export of educational services play an increasingly important role in fulfilling this demand. Pressures to further liberalize the global higher education market by extending the commitments under General Agreement on Trade in Services are analyzed in terms of implications and concerns. Furthermore, the European response to these global developments is considered, focusing on the question whether the Bologna Process is a sufficiently adequate response to the challenges of globalisation. Finally, some observations and comments are presented on the current discussion and the role and arguments of various actors in it.This article addresses the growing demand for access to higher education and the conditions under which this is leading to a worldwide market. The supply of transnational (or cross-border) education and the export of educational services play an increasingly important role in fulfilling this demand. Pressures to further liberalize the global higher education market by extending the commitments under General Agreement on Trade in Services are analyzed in terms of implications and concerns. Furthermore, the European response to these global developments is considered, focusing on the question whether the Bologna Process is a sufficiently adequate response to the challenges of globalisation. Finally, some observations and comments are presented on the current discussion and the role and arguments of various actors in it.

The International Dimension in National Higher Education Policies: What Has Changed in Europe in the Last Five Years

A study conducted in 1996 on the relationship between internationalisation and national higher education policies in Europe showed that there were few structured relationships developed at the national level. Furthermore, it was found that, increasingly, economic rationales define internationalisation policies and efforts, both at the institutional and national level. Finally, it was suggested that internationalisation is expected to become a more important factor in the definition and development of national higher education policy. This article will review two questions. First, whether the international dimension has indeed become more important in national higher education policy in the last five years, and if so, why? And second, whether the identified trend of growing economic interests related to internationalisation goals has, in fact, persisted, and why? How does this affects higher education policy at the national level? These questions will be answered on the basis of evidence gathered in the final evaluation of the SOCRATES I (1995-2000) programme and a survey undertaken on the follow-up of the 1999 Bologna Declaration. The article will show that, whereas the SOCRATES programme has only had a very limited impact on system-level change, the Bologna Declaration has been a major push for the recognition and integration of the international dimension in national higher education policy. Furthermore, it will demonstrate that the economic rationale for internationalisation has indeed gained in importance over the last five years. But also that countries vary to a large extent with respect to their economic aims and interests and the instruments they use. Finally, questions are raised concerning the possible effectiveness of the Bologna process in the wider context of the globalisation of the higher education market.

On Cooperation and Competition: A Comparative Analysis of National Policies for Internationalisation of Higher Education in Seven Western European Countries

The focus of this article is on a comparison of the national policies for internationalisation in seven Western European countries (Austria, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United Kingdom). In this comparison, it will be shown that the trend suggested in previous research of increasing economical rationales for internationalisation and mainstreaming of higher education have persisted during the past few years. In addition, the approach to internationalization in the seven countries has broadened and is no longer mainly about student and staff mobility. Finally, the article shows that changes in the higher education policy context, including international and global developments, have brought about reforms in the higher education systems of the countries; these developments, however, have no uniform impact on the higher education policy and systems.

Blurring boundaries: how the Bologna process changes the relationship between university and non‐university higher education in Germany, the Netherlands and France

Between 1998 and 2004, the higher education systems of Germany, France and the Netherlands underwent major changes. The changes were framed in the context of the Bologna process, and linked to the reform of degree structure towards a system of undergraduate and graduate cycles. This article investigates how a key feature of these systems was affected, the relationship between university and non‐university higher education. It demonstrates how the Bologna process was seized as an opportunity for adjusting policies defining the types of higher education institutions, their status and roles. Using institutional theory, it compares actor constellations and actor interaction in the policy process to explain similarities and differences. It finds that, while the two institutional types moved closer to each other in all three systems, the boundaries between university and non‐university higher education started to blur, and tensions emerged between the new degree structures and other elements of the institutional reality.

Internationalising the Curriculum in Dutch Higher Education: An International Comparative Perspective

The Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERJ) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) oversees the Higher Education in a New International Setting project. ...The Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERJ) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) oversees the Higher Education in a New International Setting project. As part of this initiative, in 1996 the OECD/CERl publisbed a study entitled Internationalisation of Higher Education. Six OECD countries, Australia, Denmark, France, Germany, Japan and the Netherlands, participated in the study, which involved an assessment of internationalised curricula and in-depth case studies. This article reports on the findings of the Dutch study in the context of the entire OECD/CERI project. The study found a large increase in the provision of internationalised curricula over the last ten years, largely in economics and business studies, the humanities, and social sciences. They include curricula with international subjects, curricula with international comparative approaches, and interdisciplinary regional and area studies. The study also examined the process of internationalising the curriculum, and concluded that it is lengthy and complex, that individual academics play a vital role, and that it requires support from a combined bottom-up and top-down strategy that is consistent with the institutions policy on internationalisation.

International Aspects of Quality Assurance with a Special Focus on European Higher Education

The link between internationalisation and quality assurance used to be missing. In this paper, we wish to show why and how this link is being established in recent years by looking at developments that suggest convergence between the two. We emphasise the implications of wider international developments on Europe as a whole. Implications of the Bologna Declaration for quality assurance are elaborated. Finally, we mention a number of unresolved issues that require further research.