Mario E. Alburges

Neuronal and behavioural abnormalities in striatal function in DARPP-32- mutant mice

We investigated the role of the protein phosphatase inhibitor, dopamine‐ and cAMP‐regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa (DARPP‐32), in the expression of striatal neuropeptides and in biochemical and behavioural responses to repeated cocaine administration, using DARPP‐32 knock‐out mice. The striatum of DARPP‐32‐mutant mice showed heightened substance‐P‐like immunoreactivity, but normal levels of other neuropeptides. Repeated cocaine administration increased levels of ΔFosB, a Fos family transcription factor, in the striatum of wild‐type mice, and this increase was abolished in DARPP‐32‐mutant mice. Cocaine (20 mg/kg) acutely induced the same level of locomotor activity in the mutant and wild‐type mice, but the mutants showed a higher rate of locomotor sensitization to repeated cocaine exposures. These data show that DARPP‐32 is involved in regulating substance P expression in the striatonigral pathway, and in biochemical and behavioural plasticity with chronic administration of cocaine.

Striatal and ventral pallidum dynorphin concentrations are markedly increased in human chronic cocaine users.

Interest in development of therapeutics targeting brain neuropeptide systems for treatment of cocaine addiction (e.g., kappa opioid agonists) is based on animal data showing interactions between the neuropeptides, brain dopamine, and cocaine. In this autopsied brain study, our major objective was to establish by radioimmunoassay whether levels of dynorphin and other neuropeptides (e.g., metenkephalin, neurotensin and substance P) are increased in the dopamine-rich caudate, putamen, and nucleus accumbens of human chronic cocaine users (n=12) vs. matched control subjects (n=17) as predicted by animal findings. Changes were limited to markedly increased dynorphin immunoreactivity in caudate (+92%), decreased caudate neurotensin (-49%), and a trend for increased dynorphin (+75%) in putamen. In other examined subcortical/cerebral cortical areas dynorphin levels were normal with the striking exception of the ventral pallidum (+346%), whereas cerebral cortical metenkephalin levels were generally decreased and neurotensin variably changed. Our finding that, in contradistinction to animal data, the other striatal neuropeptides were not increased in human cocaine users could be explained by differences in pattern and contingency between human drug users and the animal models. However, the human dynorphin observations parallel well animal findings and suggest that the dynorphin system is upregulated, manifested as elevated neuropeptide levels, after chronic drug exposure in striatum and ventral pallidum. Our postmortem brain data suggest involvement of striatal dynorphin systems in human cocaine users and should add to the interest in the testing of new dynorphin-related therapeutics for the treatment of cocaine addiction.

[3H]SCH39166, a D1 dopamine receptor antagonist: Binding characteristics and localization

Schering-Plough Research has developed a new, more specific analogue of SCH23390. This compound, SCH39166, has been shown to be a potent, specific, D1 receptor antagonist with several features which are advantageous over its predecessor. In this report, the binding characteristics of [3H]SCH39166 are described by in vitro analysis in rat brain tissues. The binding was shown to be of high affinity (Kd in the low nM range), saturable, and specific (readily displaceable with SCH23390, but not with the D2 receptor antagonists sulpiride or haloperidol). The binding of SCH39166 is more selective for binding to D1 receptors than SCH23390 with regard to overlap of the latter compound onto 5HT2 and 5HT1C receptors. Autoradiographic localization of D1 receptor sites labeled with [3H]SCH39166 showed a very specific distribution in areas known to contain high quantities of D1 receptors. These regions included the deepest layer of the cerebral cortex, the caudate-putamen, nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercle, entopeduncular nucleus, and substantia nigra-pars reticulata, as well as less dense binding in a few other areas. At the concentration of ligand used (1 nM), there was a noticeable paucity of labeling in lamina IV of the cerebral cortex and in the choroid plexus, regions of high 5HT2 and 5HT1C receptor binding, respectively. Thus, SCH39166 represents a new D1 receptor antagonist which shows a greater specificity for the D1 receptor than its predecessor SCH23390. As previously shown, another distinct advantage of this compound is its stability in primates which should allow the determination of the effects and utility of D1 receptor antagonism in vivo.

Effect of Methamphetamine Self-Administration on Neurotensin Systems of the Basal Ganglia

Methamphetamine (METH) dependence causes alarming personal and social damage. Even though many of the problems associated with abuse of METH are related to its profound actions on dopamine (DA) basal ganglia systems, there currently are no approved medications to treat METH addiction. For this reason, we and others have examined the METH-induced responses of neurotensin (NT) systems in the basal ganglia. This neuropeptide is associated with inhibitory feedback pathways to nigrostriatal DA projections, and NT tissue levels are elevated in response to high doses of noncontingent METH because of its increased synthesis in the striatonigral pathway. The present study reports the contingent responses of NT in the basal ganglia to self-administration of METH (SAM). Intravenous infusions of METH linked to appropriate lever-pressing behavior by rats significantly elevated NT content in both dorsal striatum (210%) and substantia nigra (202%). In these same structures, NT levels were also elevated in yoked METH animals (160 and 146%, respectively) but not as much as in the SAM rats. These effects were blocked by a D1, but not D2, antagonist. A NT agonist administered before the day 5 of operant behavior blocked lever-pressing behavior in responding rats, but a NT antagonist had no significant effect on this behavior. These are the first reports that NT systems associated with striatonigral pathway are significantly altered during METH self-administration, and our findings suggest that activation of NT receptors during maintenance of operant responding reduces the associated lever-pressing behavior.

Distinct responses of basal ganglia substance P systems to low and high doses of methamphetamine

Substance P (SP) is a neuropeptide closely associated with basal ganglia dopaminergic neurons. Because some neuropeptide systems in the basal ganglia (i.e. neurotensin and metenkephalin) are differentially affected by treatment with low or high doses of methamphetamine, we determined if basal ganglia SP pathways were also differentially influenced in a dose‐dependent manner by this psychostimulant. Employing in vivo microdialysis, it was observed that the lowdose (0.5 mg/kg) of methamphetamine increased the extracellular concentration of SP in the substantia nigra, but not in globus pallidus or striatum. In contrast, the high dose (10 mg/kg) of methamphetamine did not increase extracellular SP content in any of these structures. The effect of the low‐dose methamphetamine treatment on nigral extracellular SP levels was blocked by pre‐treatment with either a D1 or D2 antagonist. In addition, 12 h after similar methamphetamine treatments, a dose‐dependent differential response in SP tissue levels occurred in some of the regions examined. When these changes occurred, the low dose of methamphetamine usually reduced, whereas the high dose increased, SP tissue content. This study demonstrated opposite responses of the basal ganglia SP system to low and high doses of methamphetamine and suggested that a combination of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor activity contributed to these effects.

Brain levels of neuropeptides in human chronic methamphetamine users

Animal data show that neuropeptide systems in the dopamine-rich brain areas of the striatum (caudate, putamen, and nucleus accumbens) are influenced by exposure to psychostimulants, suggesting that neuropeptides are involved in mediating aspects of behavioral responses to drugs of abuse. To establish in an exploratory study whether levels of neuropeptides are altered in brain of human methamphetamine users, we measured tissue concentrations of dynorphin, metenkephalin, neuropeptide Y, neurotensin, and substance P in autopsied brains of 16 chronic methamphetamine users and 17 matched control subjects. As expected, levels of most neuropeptides were enriched in dopamine-linked brain regions such as the nucleus accumbens and striatum of normal human brain. In contrast to animal findings of increased neuropeptide levels following short-term methamphetamine exposure, striatal neuropeptide concentrations were either normal or moderately decreased in the methamphetamine users. In other examined dopamine-poor cortical and subcortical brain areas, neuropeptide levels were generally either normal or variably reduced. Although the neuropeptide differences might be explained by methamphetamine-induced damage to neuropeptide-containing neurons, our human data are consistent with the possibility that, at least in the human striatum, long-term methamphetamine exposure leads to an adaptive process that is distinct from that which increases neuropeptide levels after acute methamphetamine exposure.

Unilateral Ibotenic Acid Lesion of the Caudate Putamen Results in D2 Receptor Alterations on the Contralateral Side

Dopaminergic projections to the caudate putamen (CPu) involve fibers in the nigrostriatal pathway from the ipsilateral substantia nigra-pars compacta. Post-synaptic receptor populations on cells receiving this information are composed of both D1 and D2 dopamine receptor subtypes. In the present study, unilateral lesions of the CPu, with ibotenic acid, caused a significant reduction in D2 receptor mRNA on the ipsilateral side, as evidenced by in situ hybridization. Similarly, a reduction of D2 receptor binding (as demonstrated with [3H]raclopride) was observed on the lesioned side. As expected, there was no significant change in the D2 receptor binding on the contralateral side. However, a significant increase of D2 receptor mRNA (> 100%) was found in the CPu on the contralateral side when compared to sham-lesioned animals. These results indicate that compensatory changes may be occurring on the unlesioned side of the brain. These changes may reflect elevated transcription from DNA to mRNA or decreased translation of the D2 mRNA to protein following unilateral damage in the CPu. The observation of bilateral influence in the striatal dopamine receptor system may be of paramount importance in understanding movement disorders. These findings could influence the interpretation of results obtained in animal models of human disease in which the dopamine receptor system of the basal ganglia is compromised.

Responses of the extrapyramidal and limbic substance P systems to ibogaine and cocaine treatments

Ibogaine is an indolamine found in the West Africa shrub, Tabernanthe iboga, and has been proposed for the treatment of addiction to central nervous system (CNS) stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamine. The mechanism of ibogaine action and its suitability as a treatment for drug addiction still remains unclear. Since previous studies demonstrated differential effects of stimulants of abuse (amphetamines) on neuropeptide systems such as substance P, we examined the impact of ibogaine and cocaine on extrapyramidal (striatum and substantia nigra) and limbic (nucleus accumbens and frontal cortex) substance P-like immunoreactivity. Ibogaine and cocaine treatments altered substance P systems by increasing striatal and nigral substance P-like immunoreactivity concentration 12 h after the last drug treatment. However, substance P-like immunoreactivity content was not significantly increased in nucleus accumbens after treatment with either drug. The ibogaine- and cocaine-induced increases in substance P-like immunoreactivity in striatum and substantia nigra were blocked by coadministration of selective dopamine D(1) receptor antagonist (SCH 23390; R(+)-7-Chloro-8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3,4, 5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine hydrochloride) or dopamine D(2) receptor antagonist (eticlopride; S(-)-3-Chloro-5-ethyl-N-[(1-ethyl-2-pyrrolidinyl)methyl]-6-hydroxy-2- methoxy-benzamide hydrochloride). Most of the responses by substance P systems to ibogaine administration resembled those caused by cocaine, except in cortical tissue where multiple administration of cocaine, but not ibogaine increased substance P-like immunoreactivity. These data suggest that substance P systems may contribute to the effects of ibogaine and cocaine treatment.

Differential responses by neurotensin systems in extrapyramidal and limbic structures to ibogaine and cocaine

Ibogaine (Endabuse) is a psychoactive indole alkaloid found in the West African shrub, Tabernanthe iboga. This drug interrupts cocaine and amphetamine abuse and has been proposed for treatment of addiction to these stimulants. However, the mechanism of action that explains its pharmacological properties is unclear. Since previous studies demonstrated differential effects of psychotomimetic drugs (cocaine and methamphetamine) on neuropeptides such as neurotensin (NT), the present study was designed to determine: (1) the effects of ibogaine on striatal, nigral, cortical, and accumbens neurotensin-like immunoreactivity (NTLI); (2) the effects of selective dopamine antagonists on ibogaine-induced changes in NT concentrations in these brain areas; and (3) the effects of ibogaine pretreatment on cocaine-induced changes in striatal, nigral, cortical and accumbens NTLI content. Ibogaine treatments profoundly affected NT systems by increasing striatal, nigral, and accumbens NTLI content 12 h after the last drug administration. In contrast, NTLI concentrations were not significantly increased in the frontal cortex after ibogaine treatment. The ibogaine-induced increases in NTLI in striatum, nucleus accumbens and substantia nigra were blocked by coadministration of the selective D1 receptor antagonist, SCH 23390. The D2 receptor antagonist, eticlopride, blocked the ibogaine-induced increase in nigral NTLI, but not in striatum and nucleus accumbens. Ibogaine pretreatment significantly blocked the striatal and nigral increases of NTLI resulting from a single cocaine administration. Whereas many of the responses by NT systems to ibogaine resembled those which occur after cocaine, there were also some important differences. These data suggest that NT may contribute to an interaction between ibogaine and the DA system and may participate in the pharmacological actions of this drug.

Response of Limbic Neurotensin Systems to Methamphetamine Self-Administration

Methamphetamine (METH) abuse is personally and socially devastating. Although effects of METH on dopamine (DA) systems likely contribute to its highly addictive nature, no medications are approved to treat METH dependence. Thus, we and others have studied the METH-induced responses of neurotensin (NT) systems. NT is associated with inhibitory feedback action on DA projections, and NT levels are elevated in both the nucleus accumbens and dorsal striatum after noncontingent treatment with high doses of METH. In the present study, we used a METH self-administration (SA) model (linked to lever pressing) to demonstrate that substitution of an NT agonist for METH, while not significantly affecting motor activity, dramatically reduced lever pressing but was not self-administered per se. We also found that nucleus accumbens NT levels were elevated via a D1 mechanism after five sessions in rats self-administering METH (SAM), with a lesser effect in corresponding yoked rats. Extended (15 daily sessions) exposure to METH SA manifested similar NT responses; however, more detailed analyses revealed (i) 15 days of METH SA significantly elevated NT levels in the nucleus accumbens shell and dorsal striatum, but not the nucleus accumbens core, with a lesser effect in the corresponding yoked METH rats; (ii) the elevation of NT in both the nucleus accumbens shell and dorsal striatum significantly correlated with the total amount of METH received in the self-administering, but not the corresponding yoked METH rats; and (iii) an NT agonist blocked, but an NT antagonist did not alter, lever-pressing behavior on day 15 in SAM rats. After 5 days in SAM animals, NT levels were also elevated in the ventral tegmental area, but not frontal cortex of rats self-administering METH.