Mario S. Di Bitetti

ESTIMATING PUMA DENSITIES FROM CAMERA TRAPPING ACROSS THREE STUDY SITES: BOLIVIA, ARGENTINA, AND BELIZE

Abstract Estimates of abundance are extremely valuable for species conservation, yet determining abundance for elusive, wide-ranging, carnivores is difficult. We estimated density of pumas using remote cameras across study sites in Bolivia, Argentina, and Belize. We used obvious and subtle markings to identify individual pumas in photographs and conducted double-blind identifications to examine the degree of agreement among investigators. Average agreement on identification between pairs of investigators was nearly 80.0% and 3-way agreement was 72.9%. Identification of pumas as different individuals was uncommon (7.8% pairwise, 0.69% 3-way disagreement) with the remainder described as unidentifiable. Densities of pumas varied consistently from site to site regardless of investigator. Bolivian pumas moved the shortest distances between camera stations and Argentinean pumas the longest, but distances among cameras and area covered by surveys varied among sites. We applied a correction factor to the Bolivian data to account for the small area surveyed and found that, averaged across investigator, Bolivia had significantly more pumas per 100 km2 (mean ± SD; 6.80 ± 1.5) than Belize (3.42 ± 1.3) or Argentina (0.67 ± 0.2). Numbers of pumas in Argentina match those of low-density North American sites, and those for Belize are consistent with the Pantanal and high-density North American sites. Densities of pumas can be reliably estimated with remote cameras for these sites, and our work presents the 1st density estimates for Central America and for forested environments in South America.

Jaguar Panthera onca population decline in the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest of Argentina and Brazil

The Green Corridor of Argentina and Brazil is the largest forest remnant of the Upper ParanaAtlantic Forest. The jaguar population of this region is highly fragmented and reduced. To assess the status of the subpopulation of jaguars of the Green Corridor we con- ducted four camera-trap surveys in three sites with different levels of protection. At Urugua-i ´ (34 stations, 1,495 trap-days) we recorded one individual (minimum density 5 0.12-0.33 per 100 km 2 ). At YabotiBiosphere Reserve (42 stations, 1,871 trap-days) we recorded two individuals (minimum density 5 0.11-0.25 per 100 km 2 ). At IguazuNational Park we conducted two surveys. In 2004 (39 stations, 1,839 trap-days) we recorded four adult individuals, estimating a density of between 0.49 - 0.16 and 1.07 - 0.33 per 100 km 2 . In 2006, we increased the area sampled (47 stations, 2,059 trap-days) and recorded 11 adult individuals, estimating a density of 0.93 - 0.2 to 1.74 - 0.34 per 100 km 2 . These density estimates are the lowest recorded for the species. Estimates for Iguazuare between 2-7.5 times lower than those reported in the early 1990s. This population decline probably results from the in- teraction of several factors, including lack of prey as a result of poaching and persecution. We estimate that there is currently a population of 25-53 adult jaguars in the Green Corridor. In spite of having sufficient potential habitat available this population is threatened and urgent conser- vation action is required.

Local and continental correlates of the abundance of a neotropical cat, the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis)

As top predators, wild cats play a key ecological role in tropical forests, but little is known about the factors that regulate their abundance. This study looked for correlates of ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) abundance at two spatial scales. First, camera-trap surveys conducted in the Atlantic Forest of Misiones, Argentina, were used to test the hypothesis that selective logging and poaching affect the local abundance of this cat. Second, published density estimates (N =21) were used to test the hypothesis that rainfall and latitude are correlated with the abundance of ocelots across their continental range. In Misiones, ocelot densities ranged from 4.96 ±1.33 individuals per 100km 2 in the intensely logged and hunted areas to 17.6 ±2.25 individuals per 100km 2 in areas with low human impact. The frequency of records, number of individuals recorded per station, and density estimates were 2-3 times higher in areas with relatively low levels of logging and poaching. At a continental scale, ocelot densities decrease with latitude and increasewithrainfall. Primaryproductivityseems todetermine theabundance ofwild cats across their range,but at a local scale their abundance may be affected by logging and poaching or by competition with other species.

A biodiversity hotspot losing its top predator: The challenge of jaguar conservation in the Atlantic Forest of South America

The jaguar is the top predator of the Atlantic Forest (AF), which is a highly threatened biodiversity hotspot that occurs in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. By combining data sets from 14 research groups across the region, we determine the population status of the jaguar and propose a spatial prioritization for conservation actions. About 85% of the jaguar’s habitat in the AF has been lost and only 7% remains in good condition. Jaguars persist in around 2.8% of the region, and live in very low densities in most of the areas. The population of jaguars in the AF is probably lower than 300 individuals scattered in small sub-populations. We identified seven Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs) and seven potential JCUs, and only three of these areas may have ≥50 individuals. A connectivity analysis shows that most of the JCUs are isolated. Habitat loss and fragmentation were the major causes for jaguar decline, but human induced mortality is the main threat for the remaining population. We classified areas according to their contribution to jaguar conservation and we recommend management actions for each of them. The methodology in this study could be used for conservation planning of other carnivore species.

Space Use and Movement of a Neotropical Top Predator: The Endangered Jaguar.

Accurately estimating home range and understanding movement behavior can provide important information on ecological processes. Advances in data collection and analysis have improved our ability to estimate home range and movement parameters, both of which have the potential to impact species conservation. Fitting continuous-time movement model to data and incorporating the autocorrelated kernel density estimator (AKDE), we investigated range residency of forty-four jaguars fit with GPS collars across five biomes in Brazil and Argentina. We assessed home range and movement parameters of range resident animals and compared AKDE estimates with kernel density estimates (KDE). We accounted for differential space use and movement among individuals, sex, region, and habitat quality. Thirty-three (80%) of collared jaguars were range resident. Home range estimates using AKDE were 1.02 to 4.80 times larger than KDE estimates that did not consider autocorrelation. Males exhibited larger home ranges, more directional movement paths, and a trend towards larger distances traveled per day. Jaguars with the largest home ranges occupied the Atlantic Forest, a biome with high levels of deforestation and high human population density. Our results fill a gap in the knowledge of the species’ ecology with an aim towards better conservation of this endangered/critically endangered carnivore—the top predator in the Neotropics.

Habitat selection in reintroduced giant anteaters: the critical role of conservation areas

Habitat selection by the 1st reintroduced population of giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) was studied at Iberá Nature Reserve (northeastern Argentina), a subtropical region of wetlands, grasslands, and forests, with properties dedicated to nature conservation or livestock production. Eighteen animals were released and radiotracked between 2007 and 2012 for periods of 6–46 months, producing 1,181 locations. The effect of land use was assessed using chi-square tests. Resource selection functions were used to assess habitat selection at 2 spatial scales using as covariates habitat type (grassland, open savanna, closed savanna, and hygrophilous forest), distance to forest edge, and distance to a main road. Habitat selection was modeled for different ages (juveniles and adults), activity (resting or active), and seasons (summer, transition, and winter) and was validated with individuals previously excluded from our analysis. Anteaters strongly selected areas dedicated to nature conservation. Adults showed higher model fit. Hygrophilous forest was positively selected and open savanna was avoided. Anteaters rested almost exclusively in forests. While active they increased the use of other habitats, except for open savanna. Grasslands were most used during the winter season, probably because they provide a constant food source and better cover than savannas. Even though < 4% of the landscape was covered by forests, this habitat proved to be important for giant anteaters. Deforestation and traditional cattle management may have caused the local extinction of the species at Iberá. Establishment of strict conservation areas in nonflooded areas combined with proper management of forests and livestock may be essential for the long-term survival of reintroduced populations in Iberá and similar regions.

Effects of human impacts on habitat use, activity patterns and ecological relationships among medium and small felids of the Atlantic Forest

Competition theory and niche theory suggest that two morphologically similar species may coexist by reducing the overlap of at least one dimension of their ecological niche. The medium and small Neotropical felids are an interesting group of carnivore species for studying intraguild competition. Due to differences in size it is expected that the larger ocelot exert strong interference competition on the smaller felids (southern tiger cat, margay and jaguarundi); which, in turn, may exert exploitative competition among themselves. Moreover, landscape changes due to human activities may alter these interspecific interactions. We studied the habitat use and the spatial and temporal interspecific relations of the medium and small Atlantic Forest felids, in a landscape with different levels of anthropogenic impact. We estimated the detection probability, and occupancy probability of these cats and whether these parameters are affected by environmental and anthropogenic variables or by the estimated occupancy and detection probability of the ocelot. We estimated the overlap in daily activity patterns between pairs of the four species and changes in their activity in response to anthropogenic impact. We also studied the potential changes that may have occurred in the daily activity of the small felids in relation to ocelots occupancy probability. The probability of habitat use of the small- and medium-size felids was negatively associated to the intensity of landscape use by humans. Co-occurrence models indicated that the probability of habitat use by southern tiger cats decreased with ocelot occupancy probability. This effect was higher as human disturbance increased. Moreover, the ocelot and the southern tiger cat became more nocturnal in sites with higher human access, suggesting that they may be temporally avoiding encounters with humans or dogs. Conservation of medium and small felids in the Atlantic Forest depends not only on the establishment and implementations of protected areas but also on the management of humans land uses.

Daily activity pattern of reintroduced giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla): effects of seasonality and experience

Abstract We assessed the effect of seasonality and intrinsic conditions on daily activity pattern of giant anteaters reintroduced in the Iberá Reserve, Argentina. During 2007–2012 we gathered 159 24-h focal samples on 15 radio-marked individuals (11 captive-reared, four wild-reared; seven adults, eight juveniles), 216 records of beginning and end of activity bouts on 20 individuals, and 454 camera-traps records (3345 trap-days). We estimated the daily hours of activity, the percentage of diurnal and nocturnal activity, and the daily activity range and time overlap using time as a circular variable in kernel density estimations. We assessed differences between seasons, sexes, age classes, and types of rearing. The average daily hours of activity was 8:43 h. Camera-traps and radio-telemetry showed similar results. Animals exhibited both diurnal (60–65%) and nocturnal (40–35%) activity. The higher probability for being active ranged within 09:00–03:00 h. Anteaters spent more hours active and were more nocturnal during summer. Activity was highly overlapped between sexes, and wild-reared individuals were more nocturnal than captive-reared ones. Seasonal shifts in daily activity highlights the importance of thermoregulation as a selective factor in this species. The giant anteater is a cathemeral species with flexibility to accommodate its activity pattern to local conditions or experience.