Mark B. Orams

Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: a review of issues and impacts

Abstract The feeding of wildlife has become a popular means by which tourists and tourism operators can facilitate close observation and interaction with wildlife in the wild. These practices are widespread and have a variety of impacts on the wildlife—and on the tourists. Deliberate and long-term provision of food to wildlife has been shown to alter natural behaviour patterns and population levels. It has also resulted in the dependency of animals on the human provided food and their habituation to human contact. Intra- and inter-species aggression has also occurred where wildlife, in their efforts to obtain food, have harmed one another and harmed tourists. There are also important health implications arising from artificial food sources where injury and disease have resulted. While the great majority of cases show negative impacts arising from supplemental feeding of wildlife, this is not always the case. Certainly there are psychological, social and economic benefits that are experienced on the human side of the interaction and, in a limited number of cases, the wildlife can be shown to have benefited as well. The issue of feeding wildlife for tourism is a controversial one with little consensus regarding how it should be managed. Approaches range from complete prohibition, to active promotion and management, to simply ignoring the practices. Little empirical research, inconsistent management and differing views of the role of animals in humans’ lives ensure that this issue will remain a contentious one worthy of further examination and consideration.

Towards a more desirable form of ecotourism.

This paper reviews a variety of the definitions which have been given to the term ecotourism, and presents them as a continuum where, at one pole, all tourism can be viewed as ecotourism and, at the other, no tourism can be viewed as ecotourism. Examples of ecotourism definitions are then classified according to their position along this continuum. As a result of this classification it is suggested that it is desirable to implement management strategies which attempt to shift the ecotourist experience from simple enjoyment and satisfaction through stages of greater understanding, attitude change and finally more environmentally responsible behaviour. A model which displays this shift is offered and a series of indicators which can be used to measure the transition are suggested.

The Effectiveness of Environmental Education: Can We Turn Tourists into 'Greenies'?

A study which tested the effectiveness of an education programme for managing tourists was conducted at Tangalooma, Australia. At this holiday resort tourists are able to hand-feed a group of wild dolphins which visit the shallow waters adjacent to the resorts beach. The education programme, which uses techniques derived from cognitive psychology and learning theory, attempted to prompt increased enjoyment, knowledge and improved environmental attitudes, intentions and behaviour in participants. The study, which compared a control group who were not exposed to the education with an experiment group who were, found that desirable changes did occur as a result of the programme. This research provides much needed evidence that education can be an effective means of managing tourists interaction with wildlife and the natural environment

Using interpretation to manage nature-based tourism.

Tourist use of the natural environment has continued to increase rapidly. This has resulted in many authors expressing concern over the impact of this increasing use. This paper briefly reviews these concerns and outlines the general types of management responses to increasing tourist pressure on the natural environment. One type of management response lies in educating tourists and this paper argues that this can be an effective means of reducing negative impacts. A number of important educational techniques which can be used in an interpretation programme for ecotourists is outlined and their use and assessment is advocated.

Tourists getting close to whales, is it what whale-watching is all about?

Abstract To date research on whale-watching has tended to focus on impacts on the whales. Management approaches often rely on minimum approach distances. An associated assumption is that whale-watchers wish to get close to whales. Studies of motivation for other recreational activities show that humans seldom undertake recreational activities for simplistic reasons. Thus, this study was developed to determine the influences over whale-watchers’ enjoyment, more specifically, to assess the importance of the geographical proximity of whales. Twelve whale-watch cruises at Tangalooma, Australia were surveyed and 704 questionnaires analysed. Results showed the number of whales and their behaviour, numbers of fellow passengers, cruise duration, boat construction and sea-sickness influenced satisfaction. The geographical proximity of the whales was not a major influence. Many whale-watchers (35xa0per cent) returned satisfied even when no whales were sighted. Whale-watching is not simply about getting close to whales, many other variables are important. A better understanding of the watchers, as well as the whales, will assist in the sustainable management of this growing tourism industry.

Historical accounts of human - dolphin interaction and recent developments in wild dolphin based tourism in Australasia.

Abstract An industry based upon taking tourists to watch, swim and otherwise interact with dolphins and whales in the wild has expanded rapidly over the past decade. It is now a large and geographically dispersed activity which occurs in over 65 countries worldwide. One aspect of this industry involves interacting with dolphins and this has become particularly popular in Australia and New Zealand. There are many historical accounts of human-wild dolphin interaction and a detailed review of these records shows that the ‘new’ dolphin based tourism industry has developed from a long history of human-dolphin relationships. This comprehensive literature review also reveals that there are considerable risks, both for the dolphins and for the tourists as a result of these encounters. Risks include harassment, stress, injury and death for dolphins and also injury for humans. It is important that dolphin tourism operators, management agencies and tourists themselves are aware of these risks and manage their activities accordingly.

Creating Effective Interpretation for Managing Interaction Between Tourists and Wildlife

Ecotourism associated with wildlife is becoming increasingly popular. The effects on wildlife of this increasing popularity are causing concern. Environmental interpretation programs may be a means of minimising negative effects if they are able to change tourists’ behaviour. A review of cognitive psychology literature and theories of learning shows that simply increasing information and understanding does not necessarily result in more appropriate human behaviour. However, there are several techniques, such as the creation and resolution of cognitive dissonance and the use of the affective domain, which may create more effective interpretation. This paper reviews relevant theories of learning and offers guidelines for the creation of effective interpretation programs in the context of tourist - wildlife interaction.

Factors Affecting the Occurrence and Demographics of Common Dolphins (Delphinus sp.) in the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand

The common dolphin (Delphinus sp.) is the most frequently observed cetacean species in the Hauraki Gulf, a large shallow body of water on the northeastern coastline of North Island, New Zealand. Herein, we present the first data relating to the occurrence and distribution of common dolphins in this region and assess the possible effects of abiotic parameters on the demographics of this population. The presence of associated marine species is quantified, and differences in the occurrence and demographics of single and multi-species groups are examined. Sightings data were collected between February 2002 and January 2005 during boat-based surveys. We recorded 719 independent encounters with common dolphins, involving 1 to > 300 animals. Dolphin presence was significantly affected by month, latitude and depth. Group size varied significantly by month, season, depth, sea surface temperature (SST) and latitude, and was highly skewed towards smaller groups made up of < 50 animals. Larger aggregations were most frequent during the austral winter when nutrient upwelling typically leads to increased prey availability within the region. Over 70% of groups encountered contained immature animals and 25% of groups included neonates. Calves were observed throughout the year but were most prevalent in the austral summer months of December and January. Month, season, depth, and SST significantly affected group composition. Common dolphins were observed in association with four cetacean and eight avian species, most frequently with the Australasian gannet (Morus serrator) and the Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera brydei). The distribution of dolphin-only groups differed significantly from that of dolphin-whale groups, with mono-specific groups found on average in waters that were 3.6 m shallower and 3.1oC warmer. The year-round occurrence and social organisation of common dolphins in Hauraki Gulf waters suggest this region is important both as a calving and nursery ground.

Why dolphins may get ulcers: considering the impacts of cetacean-based tourism in New Zealand.

1 Title derived from Robert Sapolsky’s (1994) Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers. A Guide to Stress, Stress Related Diseases, and Coping. Address correspondence to Mark Orams, Coastal–Marine Research Group, Massey University at Albany, Private Bag 102 904, North Shore MSC, New Zealand. Tel: (64 9) 443 9799; Fax: (64 9) 441 8109; E-mail: M.B.Orams@massey.ac.nz WHY DOLPHINS MAY GET ULCERS: CONSIDERING THE IMPACTS OF

From Whale Hunting to Whale Watching in Tonga: A Sustainable Future?

The Vavau island group in the northern part of the Kingdom of Tonga in the South Pacific has a growing reputation as a whale-watching destination. The pro-whaling organisation, the World Council of Whalers, with some local people, has, however, been actively promoting a resumption of whaling in Tonga. This study assesses the attitudes and characteristics of whale tourists to the islands. Seventy-eight per cent of all tourists arriving by air, and around half those arriving by yacht, went whale watching. Both types of visitor opposed whale hunting; both types said they would be less likely to visit the islands if whales were hunted there. Consequently, any resumption of whaling or change in the protected status of whales would be likely to displace a large proportion of current visitors to Vavau, resulting in a serious opportunity cost. It seems unlikely that a whale-watching industry could coexist with a lethal use of whales in Tonga.