Mark D. Freeman

Mirror Technology Development for the International X-ray Observatory Mission

The International X-ray Observatory mission is a collaborative effort of NASA, ESA, and JAXA. It will have unprecedented capabilities in spectroscopy, imaging, timing and polarization measurement. A key enabling element of the mission is a flight mirror assembly providing unprecedented large effective area (3 m2) and high angular resolution of (5 arcseconds half-power diameter). In this paper we outline the conceptual design of the mirror assembly and development of technology to enable its construction.

Development of adjustable grazing incidence optics for Generation-X

For X-ray astronomy, 0.1 arc-second imaging resolution will result in a significant advance in our understanding of the Universe. Similarly, the advent of low cost high performance X-ray mirrors will also increase the likelihood of more X-ray telescopes being funded and built. We discuss the development plans of two different types of adjustable grazing incidence optics: one being a tenth arc-second resolution bimorph mirror approach also suitable for extremely large collecting areas, and the second being a few arc-second radially adjustable mirror approach more suitable for modest sized telescopes. Bimorph mirrors will be developed using thin (0.1 - 0.4 mm) thermally formed glass or electroplated metal mirror segments with thin film piezo-electric actuators deposited directly on the mirror back surface. Mirror figure will be adjusted on-orbit. Radially adjustable mirrors will employ discreet radially electrostrictive actuators for mirror alignment and low spatial error frequency figure correction during assembly and alignment. In this paper we report on. In this paper we describe mirror design and our development plans for both mirror concepts.

Constellation-X spectroscopy X-ray telescope (SXT)

We provide an overview of the Constellation-X SXT development program. We describe the performance requirements and goals, and the status of the technology development program. The SXT has a 1.6-meter diameter, a 10-meter focal length, and is to have an angular resolution exceeding 15 arc seconds. It has a modular design, incorporting lightweight, multiply nested, segmented Wolter Type I x-ray mirrors. All aspects of the design lend themselves to mass-production. The reflecting surfaces are produced by epoxy replication off precision mandrels onto glass substrates that have been accurately formed by thermal slumping. Coalignment of groups of relfectors to the required sub-micron accuracy is assisted by precison silicon micorstructures. Optical alignment is performed using the Centroid Detector Assembly originally developed for aligning the Chandra mirror. Recent efforts have concentrated on the producotin of an Engineering Unit, incorporating the components for the first time into a flight-like configuration. We summarize the status of the development of the processes for the key components and the initial metrology results of the Engineering Unit.

Arcus: an ISS-attached high-resolution x-ray grating spectrometer

We present the design and scientific motivation for Arcus, an X-ray grating spectrometer mission to be deployed on the International Space Station. This mission will observe structure formation at and beyond the edges of clusters and galaxies, feedback from supermassive black holes, the structure of the interstellar medium and the formation and evolution of stars. The mission requirements will be R>2500 and >600 cm2 of effective area at the crucial O VII and O VIII lines, values similar to the goals of the IXO X-ray Grating Spectrometer. The full bandpass will range from 8-52Å (0.25-1.5 keV), with an overall minimum resolution of 1300 and effective area >150 cm2. We will use the silicon pore optics developed at cosine Research and proposed for ESA’s Athena mission, paired with off-plane gratings being developed at the University of Iowa and combined with MIT/Lincoln Labs CCDs. This mission achieves key science goals of the New Worlds, New Horizons Decadal survey while making effective use of the International Space Station (ISS).

High-Resolution X-Ray Telescopes

High-energy astrophysics is a relatively young scientific field, made possible by space-borne telescopes. During the half-century history of x-ray astronomy, the sensitivity of focusing x-ray telescopes-through finer angular resolution and increased effective area-has improved by a factor of a 100 million. This technological advance has enabled numerous exciting discoveries and increasingly detailed study of the high-energy universe-including accreting (stellarmass and super-massive) black holes, accreting and isolated neutron stars, pulsar-wind nebulae, shocked plasma in supernova remnants, and hot thermal plasma in clusters of galaxies. As the largest structures in the universe, galaxy clusters constitute a unique laboratory for measuring the gravitational effects of dark matter and of dark energy. Here, we review the history of high-resolution x-ray telescopes and highlight some of the scientific results enabled by these telescopes. Next, we describe the planned next-generation x-ray-astronomy facility-the International X-ray Observatory (IXO). We conclude with an overview of a concept for the next next-generation facility-Generation X. The scientific objectives of such a mission will require very large areas (about 10000 m2) of highly-nested lightweight grazing-incidence mirrors with exceptional (about 0.1-arcsecond) angular resolution. Achieving this angular resolution with lightweight mirrors will likely require on-orbit adjustment of alignment and figure.

Constellation-X spectroscopy x-ray telescope optical assembly pathfinder image error budget and performance prediction

The Constellation-X mission is a follow-on to the current Chandra and XMM missions. It will place in orbit an array of four X-ray telescopes that will work in unison, having a substantial increase in effective area, energy resolution, and energy bandpass over current missions. To accomplish these ambitious increases new optics technologies must be exploited. The primary instrument for the mission is the Spectroscopy X-Ray Telescope (SXT), which covers the 0.21 to 10 keV band with a combination of two x-ray detectors: a reflection grating spectrometer with CCD readout and a micro-calorimeter. Mission requirements are an effective area of 15,000 cm2 near 1 keV and a 15 arc-sec (HPD) image resolution with a goal of 5 arc-sec. The Constellation-X SXT uses a segmented design with lightweight replicated optics. A technology development program is being pursued with the intent of demonstrating technical readiness prior to the program new start. Key elements of the program include the replication of the optical elements, assembly and alignment of the optics into a complete mirror assembly and demonstration of production techniques needed for fabrication of multiple units. These elements will be demonstrated in a series of engineering development and prototype optical assemblies which are increasingly flight-like. In this paper we present an image angular resolution error budgets for the SXT and for the Optical Assembly Pathfinder #2 (OAP2), the first of engineering development units intended to be tested in x-rays. We describe OAP2 image error sources and performance analyses made to assess error sensitivities. Finally we present an overall prediction of as-tested imaging performance in the x-ray test facility.

Toward Active X-ray Telescopes II

In the half century since the initial discovery of an astronomical (non-solar) x-ray source, the observation time required to achieve a given sensitivity has decreased by eight orders of magnitude. Largely responsible for this dramatic progress has been the refinement of the (grazing-incidence) focusing x-ray telescope, culminating with the exquisite subarcsecond imaging performance of the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The future of x-ray astronomy relies upon the development of x-ray telescopes with larger aperture areas (< 1 m2) and comparable or finer angular resolution (< 1″). Combined with the special requirements of grazing-incidence optics, the mass and envelope constraints of space-borne telescopes render such advances technologically challenging—requiring precision fabrication, alignment, and assembly of large areas (< 200 m2) of lightweight (≈ 1 kg m-2 areal density) mirrors. Achieving precise and stable alignment and figure control may entail active (in-space adjustable) x-ray optics. This paper discusses relevant programmatic and technological issues and summarizes current progress toward active x-ray telescopes.

The Constellation-X RGS options: raytrace modeling of the off-plane gratings

The Reflection Grating Spectrometer of the Constellation-X mission has two strong candidate configurations. The first configuration, the in-plane grating (IPG), is a set of reflection gratings similar to those flown on XMM-Newton and has grooves perpendicular to the direction of incident light. In the second configuration, the off-plane grating (OPG), the grooves are closer to being parallel to the incident light, and diffract along a cone. It has advantages of higher packing density, and higher reflectivity. Confinement of these gratings to sub-apertures of the optic allow high spectral resolution. We have developed a raytrace model and analysis technique for the off-plane grating configuration. Initial estimates indicate that first order resolving powers in excess of 1000 (defined with half-energy width) are achievable for sufficiently long wavelengths (λ ≥ 12Å), provided separate accommodation is made for gratings in the subaperture region farther from the zeroth order location.

Technology Requirements For a Square-Meter, Arcsecond-Resolution Telescope for X-Rays: The SMART-X Mission

Addressing the astrophysical problems of the 2020’s requires sub-arcsecond x-ray imaging with square meter effective area. Such requirements can be derived, for example, by considering deep x-ray surveys to find the young black holes in the early universe (large redshifts) which will grow into the first super-massive black holes. We have envisioned a mission, the Square Meter Arcsecond Resolution Telescope for X-rays (SMART-X), based on adjustable x-ray optics technology, incorporating mirrors with the required small ratio of mass to collecting area. We are pursuing technology which achieves sub-arcsecond resolution by on-orbit adjustment via thin film piezoelectric “cells” deposited directly on the non-reflecting sides of thin, slumped glass. While SMART-X will also incorporate state-of-the-art x-ray cameras, the remaining spacecraft systems have no requirements more stringent than those which are well understood and proven on the current Chandra X-ray Observatory.

The square meter arcsecond resolution x-ray telescope: SMART-X

We describe an X-ray Observatory mission with 0.5” angular resolution, comparable to the Chandra X-ray Observatory, but with 30 times more effective collecting area. The concept is based on developing the new technology of adjustable X-ray optics for ultra thin (0.4 mm), highly nested grazing incidence X-ray mirrors. Simulations to date indicate that the corrections for manufacturing and mounting can be determined on the ground and the effects of gravity release can be calculated to sufficient accuracy, so that all adjustments are applied only once on-orbit, without the need of any on-orbit determination of the required corrections. The mission concept is based on the Chandra Observatory, and takes advantage of the technology studies which have taken place over the past fifteen years developing large area, light weight mirrors.