Mark E. Warchol

Asymmetric Localization of Vangl2 and Fz3 Indicate Novel Mechanisms for Planar Cell Polarity in Mammals

Planar cell polarity (PCP) is a process in which cells develop with uniform orientation within the plane of an epithelium. To begin to elucidate the mechanisms of PCP in vertebrates, the localization of the protein Vangl2 (Van Gogh-like) was determined during the development of the mammalian cochlea. Results indicate that Vangl2 becomes asymmetrically localized to specific cell–cell boundaries along the axis of polarization and that this asymmetry is lost in PCP mutants. In addition, PDZ2 (postsynaptic density/Discs large/zona occludens 1), PDZ3, and PDZ4 of the PCP protein Scrb1 (Scribble) are shown to bind to the C-terminal PDZ binding domain of Vangl2, suggesting that Scrb1 plays a direct role in asymmetric targeting of Vangl2. Finally, Fz3 (Frizzled), a newly demonstrated mediator of PCP, is also asymmetrically localized in a pattern that matches that of Vangl2. The presence and asymmetry of Fz3 at the membrane is shown to be dependent on Vangl2. This result suggests a role for Vangl2 in the targeting or anchoring of Fz3, a hypothesis strengthened by the existence of a physical interaction between the two proteins. Together, our data support the idea that protein asymmetry plays an important role in the development of PCP, but the colocalization and interaction of Fz3 and Vangl2 suggests that novel PCP mechanisms exist in vertebrates.

Neural coding in the chick cochlear nucleus

SummaryPhysiological recordings were made from single units in the two divisions of the chick cochlear nucleus — nucleus angularis (NA) and nucleus magnocellularis (NM). Sound evoked responses were obtained in an effort to quantify functional differences between the two nuclei. In particular, it was of interest to determine if nucleus angularis and magnocellularis code for separate features of sound stimuli, such as temporal and intensity information. The principal findings are:1.Spontaneous activity patterns in the two nuclei are very different. Neurons in nucleus angularis tend to have low spontaneous discharge rates while magnocellular units have high levels of spontaneous firing.2.Frequency tuning curves recorded in both nuclei are similar in form, although the best thresholds of NA units are about 10 dB more sensitive than their NM counterparts across the entire frequency range. A wide spread of neural thresholds is evident in both NA and NM.3.Large driven increases in discharge rate are seen in both NA and NM. Rate intensity functions from NM units are all monotonic, while a substantial percentage (22%) of NA units respond to increased sound level in a nonmonotonic fashion.4.Most NA units with characteristic frequencies (CF) above 1000 Hz respond to sound stimuli at CF as ‘choppers’, while units with CFs below 1000 Hz are ‘primary-like’. Several ‘onset’ units are also seen in NA. In contrast, all NM units show ‘primary-like’ response.5.Units in both nuclei with CFs below 1000 Hz show strong neural phase-locking to stimuli at their CF. Above 1000 Hz, few NA units are phase-locked, while phase-locking in NM extends to 2000 Hz.6.These results are discussed with reference to the hypothesis that NM initiates a neural pathway which codes temporal information while NA is involved primarily with intensity coding, similar in principle to the segregation of function seen in the cochlear nucleus of the barn owl (Sullivan and Konishi 1984).

Regenerative Proliferation in Organ Cultures of the Avian Cochlea: Identification of the Initial Progenitors and Determination of the Latency of the Proliferative Response

Sensory hair cells in the cochleae of birds are regenerated after the death of preexisting hair cells caused by acoustic overstimulation or administration of ototoxic drugs. Regeneration involves renewed proliferation of cells in an epithelium that is otherwise mitotically quiescent. To determine the identity of the first cells that proliferate in response to the death of hair cells and to measure the latency of this proliferative response, we have studied hair-cell regeneration in organ culture. Cochleae from hatchling chicks were placed in culture, and hair cells were killed individually by a laser microbeam. The culture medium was then replaced with a medium that contained a labeled DNA precursor. The treated cochleae were incubated in the labeling media for different time periods before being fixed and processed for the visualization of proliferating cells. The first cells to initiate DNA replication in response to the death of hair cells were supporting cells within the cochlear sensory epithelium. All of the labeled supporting cells were located within 200 μm of the hair-cell lesions. These cells first entered S-phase ∼16 hr after the death of hair cells. The results indicate that supporting cells are the precursors of regenerated hair cells and suggest that regenerative proliferation of supporting cells is triggered by signals that act locally within the damaged epithelium.

Caspase Inhibitors Promote Vestibular Hair Cell Survival and Function after Aminoglycoside Treatment In Vivo

The sensory hair cells of the inner ear undergo apoptosis after acoustic trauma or aminoglycoside antibiotic treatment, causing permanent auditory and vestibular deficits in humans. Previous studies have demonstrated a role for caspase activation in hair cell death and ototoxic injury that can be reduced by concurrent treatment with caspase inhibitors in vitro. In this study, we examined the protective effects of caspase inhibition on hair cell death in vivo after systemic injections of aminoglycosides. In one series of experiments, chickens were implanted with osmotic pumps that administrated the pan-caspase inhibitor z-Val-Ala-Asp(Ome)-fluoromethylketone (zVAD) into inner ear fluids. One day after the surgery, the animals received a 5 d course of treatment with streptomycin, a vestibulotoxic aminoglycoside. Direct infusion of zVAD into the vestibule significantly increased hair cell survival after streptomycin treatment. A second series of experiments determined whether rescued hair cells could function as sensory receptors. Animals treated with streptomycin displayed vestibular system impairment as measured by a greatly reduced vestibulo-ocular response (VOR). In contrast, animals that received concurrent systemic administration of zVAD with streptomycin had both significantly greater hair cell survival and significantly increased VOR responses, as compared with animals treated with streptomycin alone. These findings suggest that inhibiting the activation of caspases promotes the survival of hair cells and protects against vestibular function deficits after aminoglycoside treatment.

Cell death, cell proliferation, and estimates of hair cell life spans in the vestibular organs of chicks

We have examined the level of on-going cell death in the chick vestibular epithelia using the TUNEL method and compared this to the rate of on-going cell proliferation. Utricles contained 22.6 +/- 6.8 TUNEL-labeled cells (mean +/- s.e.m.) while saccules contained 15.1 +/- 4.0, with approximately 90% being labeled hair cells. In separate experiments, chicks were given a single injection of BrdU and killed 2 h later. Utricles contained 116.9 +/- 6.5 BrdU-labeled cells (mean +/- s.e.m.) and saccules contained 41.0 +/- 2.2. After 24 h in culture, utricles treated with 1 mM neomycin contained 115.5 +/- 38.9 TUNEL-labeled cells, an increase of 270% over controls. After 48 h, neomycin-treated saccules contained 40.9 +/- 7.8, an increase of 152% over controls. The majority of labeled cells were in the hair cell layer. Thus, neomycin exposure results in an apoptotic death of hair cells. The in vivo data measured here were used to estimate that the average life span of utricular hair cells in young chickens is approximately 20 days, in sharp contrast to the life spans assumed for hair cells in humans.

Sensory regeneration in the vertebrate inner ear: differences at the levels of cells and species.

The ears of nonmammalian vertebrates are capable of regenerating sensory hair cells after acoustic trauma or ototoxic injury. In contrast, the mammalian inner ear lacks regenerative ability and the loss of hair cells results in permanent deficits in hearing and balance. Comparative observations across all vertebrate classes suggest that regenerative ability was a stem trait and was lost during the course of mammalian evolution. This review provides an overview of regeneration and post-embryonic growth in the vertebrate ear. It is suggested that the lack of regeneration in the mammalian ear was the result of a trade-off between phenotypic plasticity of supporting cells and sensitive high frequency hearing.

Large Scale Gene Expression Profiles of Regenerating Inner Ear Sensory Epithelia

Loss of inner ear sensory hair cells (HC) is a leading cause of human hearing loss and balance disorders. Unlike mammals, many lower vertebrates can regenerate these cells. We used cross-species microarrays to examine this process in the avian inner ear. Specifically, changes in expression of over 1700 transcription factor (TF) genes were investigated in hair cells of auditory and vestibular organs following treatment with two different damaging agents and regeneration in vitro. Multiple components of seven distinct known signaling pathways were clearly identifiable: TGFβ, PAX, NOTCH, WNT, NFKappaB, INSULIN/IGF1 and AP1. Numerous components of apoptotic and cell cycle control pathways were differentially expressed, including p27KIP and TFs that regulate its expression. A comparison of expression trends across tissues and treatments revealed identical patterns of expression that occurred at identical times during regenerative proliferation. Network analysis of the patterns of gene expression in this large dataset also revealed the additional presence of many components (and possible network interactions) of estrogen receptor signaling, circadian rhythm genes and parts of the polycomb complex (among others). Equal numbers of differentially expressed genes were identified that have not yet been placed into any known pathway. Specific time points and tissues also exhibited interesting differences: For example, 45 zinc finger genes were specifically up-regulated at later stages of cochlear regeneration. These results are the first of their kind and should provide the starting point for more detailed investigations of the role of these many pathways in HC recovery, and for a description of their possible interactions.

Cellular mechanisms of aminoglycoside ototoxicity.

Purpose of reviewTo summarize advances in the study of the interaction between sensory hair cells and aminoglycoside antibiotics. Recent findingsAminoglycosides enter hair cells through mechanotransduction channels and initiate an active signaling pathway that leads to cell death. Early expression of heat shock proteins can protect hair cells from aminoglycosides, although signaling from surrounding supporting cells appears to promote hair cell death. Studies of certain human deafness mutations have revealed new insights into the role of mitochondria in aminoglycoside ototoxicity. SummaryThe cellular mechanisms of aminoglycoside ototoxicity continue to be an active topic of research and newly developed animal models offer great promise for future advances. Nevertheless, proven clinical methods for the prevention of ototoxic injury are not yet available.

Differentiation of the lateral compartment of the cochlea requires a temporally restricted FGF20 signal.

FGF20 signaling in mice is required specifically for the differentiation of cochlear outer hair cells, the cells most often damaged during age-related hearing loss.

Immune cytokines and dexamethasone influence sensory regeneration in the avian vestibular periphery

Prior studies have shown that macrophages are recruited to sites of hair cell lesions in the avian inner ear in vitro (Warchol, 1997) and in vivo (Bhave et al., 1998). Although the avian ear has a high capacity for sensory regeneration (Oberholtzer & Corwin, 1997; Stone et al., 1998), the role of macrophages in the regenerative process is uncertain. The present study examined the possible influence of macrophages and immune cytokines on regenerative proliferation in the avian utricle, one of the sensory endorgans of the vestibular system. Utricles from post-hatch chicks were placed in organ culture and hair cell lesions were created by incubation in neomycin. The cultures were then maintained for an additional 24–48 hours in vitro, and some cultures were treated with dexamethasone, which inhibits macrophage activation and cytokine production. Following fixation, resident macrophages were identified by immunoreactivity to CD68. Labeled macrophages were present in all specimens and increased numbers of macrophages were observed following neomycin treatment. Regenerative proliferation in dexamethasone-treated specimens was reduced by about 50%, relative to untreated controls. Additional experiments showed that two macrophage secretory products—TGF-α and TNF-α—enhanced the proliferation of utricular supporting cells. The results are consistent with a role for macrophages in hair cell regeneration.