Mark S. Searle

Whether to Go and Where to Go: Identification of Important Influences on Seniors' Decisions to Travel

This study focuses on discerning the differences between older adults who travel and those who do not, and also on distinguishing between destination choices. Data show that several variables account for differences among older adults, and consideration is given to the role of continuity theory as one possible explanation of the outcomes.

Socioeconomic variations in perceived barriers to recreation participation among would‐be participants

Abstract The effects of fifteen barriers to participation were examined among people who expressed a desire for but were unable to participate in a new recreational activity. Work commitments, overcrowding of facilities, and lack of partners were the three main barriers. The effects of barriers were not perceived uniformly across the sample but varied between subgroups defined according to socioeconomic variables: the people most likely to be affected by barriers to participation included the poor, the elderly, and single parents. The extent to which recreation practitioners can and should respond to these kinds of research findings is discussed, and several ways in which the effects of barriers to participation might be modified or alleviated are evaluated.

RECREATION NON-PARTICIPATION AND BARRIERS TO PARTICIPATION: CONCEPTS, AND MODELS

ABSTRACT Recent literature has suggested that managers in recreation are being confronted with numerous problems and issues, making their job increasingly complex. Chief among the issues facing recreation managers are those associated with the economy and fiscal restraint. In this era of cutbacks, facilitation, and reduced service, some individuals are being excluded either by design or by accident. The results from the 1981 Public Opinion Survey on Recreation conducted by Alberta Recreation and Parks susbtantiated this concern in the interrelated areas of recreation non-participation and barriers to participation. Based on the results of this research, considerations for managing recreation services are presented. Implications for philosophy, policy, program planning and marketing are the specific areas to be addressed. These implications are reviewed in the context of the current economy and the future. This is a parallel paper to Jackson and Searle which reports the concepts, research results and a mod...

Propositions for testing social exchange theory in the context of ceasing leisure participation

Abstract The issue of ceasing participation in leisure activities has gained increasing attention in the literature over the past decade as a natural consequence of the increased interest in constraints on leisure, but the research done in this area and in the broader area of constraints has largely been atheoretical. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the application of social exchange theory to understanding the decision‐making process surrounding an individual ‘s intention to continue or to cease participation in organized leisure pursuits. The theory is briefly presented and subsequently elaborated on to explain how the phenomenon of ceasing leisure participation may be better understood through its central tenets. Furthermore, a revised version of the Jackson and Dunn (1988) model is presented, based on social exchange theory.

Integrating ceasing participation with other aspects of leisure behavior: a replication and extension.

This study was a replication and extension of the work originally done by Jackson and Dunn (1988) and later replicated by McGuire et al. (1989) on a model of leisure decision-making. The intent of ...

IS LEISURE THEORY NEEDED FOR LEISURE STUDIES

KEYWORDS: Leisure theory, social exchange Studying leisure has been the subject of interest by a wide range of scholars representing a wide range of disciplines. In so doing, these scholars have largely used leisure instrumentally as means to test some aspect of their own discipline such as psychological, sociological, or economic concepts. Over the last couple of decades there has been a sustained number (and occasional decline) in university departments dedicated to the study of leisure and to various applications in leisure services. There has been a corresponding number of researchers who have, as their primary interest, the study of leisure and leisure services. While this is a relatively short period of time in the context of knowledge development, it is nonetheless interesting that as a field of study that asserts through accreditation and professional certification processes to have its own body of knowledge, there has been a paucity of theory development. For those of us whose principal identity is with leisure research, we cannot point to many theories that seek to explain leisure behavior, leisure services management, or various other dimensions of leisure services. We do not have a many theories that address the various dimensions of leisure including motivations, satisfactions, constraints, etc. What we do have is a large body of literature that has borrowed theories from other, more established disciplines, to test them and then apply them to understanding leisure phenomena. While this is not intended as a diatribe about the lack of theory, it is intended to raise the question about what the field of study seeks to become in the next century. This effort is directed at outlining the importance of theory development for the health of the field, for the enrichment of our professionals who serve the public, and for strengthening our place among the larger academic community. To do so, I must borrow a theory from social psychology and sociology. Using Social Exchange Theory (c.f., Homans, 1950; Blau, 1964; Emerson, 1972a, 197b; Cook, 1987), I hope to present an argument that will have us address the question of our role in theory development in a more meaningful and systematic fashion. This is an important issue for the field to address as we enter the new millennium and prepare for changes in lifestyles that will have dramatic and important implications for the field of leisure. Briefly stated, Exchange Theory posits that (a) individuals enter into relationships seeking some reward; (b) relationships are sustained over time if the rewards are valued and continue to evolve; (c) individuals will continue in the relationship if the other party reciprocates and provides rewards that are deemed fair in relation to others; (d) the costs of the relationship do not exceed the benefits; and (e) the probability of receiving desired rewards is high. In addition, there is a tenet of social exchange theory that states the relationship does not sustain when one party to the relationship in is a power dependent position. In a recent article, Samdahl and Kelly (1999) reported low rates of leisure research (from leisure research journals) being cited in non-leisure related journals despite the large number of articles dealing with leisure in those journals. They also note that they perceive an increasing isolation of leisure research from the broader body of literature in other disciplines that study aspects of leisure. One explanation may be that other scholars do not perceive the value of our work to offer them. It could also suggest we do a poor job of ensuring our journals are included in important humanities, social and behavioral science databases. It may, however, speak to the need for leisure researchers to develop something to test, to help understand, to contribute to the meaning of leisure phenomena. Indeed it may be some of all of these things. However, even if we are included in data bases (and I believe we frequently are) it leaves only the possibility that our work is not substantively important in the broader context or because we have conducted our work only in the context of others theories, we are at best, just another empirical piece to cite for someone doing work in a particular area. …

Testing the reciprocity norm in a recreation management setting

Abstract This study was designed to determine whether the relationship between municipal recreation directors and recreation advisory board members in small communities is based on the norm of reciprocity. Past literature on social exchange theory has suggested that relationships that are successful and sustained over time are characterized by a certain quid pro quo or reciprocal arrangement. Specifically, three hypotheses were tested through a survey sample of 84 recreation directors and 470 board members in western Canada. Results of the analysis of variance and analysis of covariance revealed that one hypothesis was sustained, suggesting that some elements of reciprocity exist. The results from the remaining two hypotheses were contrary to what was asserted, however, indicating that reciprocity was not generally the norm in the relationship. The discussion focuses on the reasons for the lack of reciprocity and the implications arising from that result.

Discriminating between physical activity participants and nonparticipants with cardiovascular disease among community-residing older adults

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which specific physical and psychologic measures distinguish between those people with cardiovascular problems who participate in physical activity and those who do not. A discriminant function analysis revealed that those individuals with cardiovascular disease who participated in physical activities were significantly younger, more likely to be male, assess their health as good, and had fewer illness symptoms and chronic conditions. These subjects also had less difficulty with activities of daily living and dexterity tasks, had higher internal control, and were more satisfied with their lives. More research is needed to fully understand how physical activity mitigates disease.