Marleen G. Groeneveld

Children’s hair cortisol as a biomarker of stress at school entry

Abstract Quantification of cortisol in scalp hair seems a promising measurement for long-term cortisol levels, and thereby a biomarker for stress. We examined hair cortisol concentrations (HCC) in children when first entering elementary school. Participants were 42 children (45% boys) with a mean age of 4.2 years (SD = 0.42 months). Hair samples (≥5 cm) were collected 2 months after school entry. Hair analysis was conducted using two 2-cm long segments, reflecting the first 2 months of school attendance (the scalp-near segment) and 2 months prior to school entry. HCC were higher after school entry than before, especially for fearful children. Alterations in HCC were not moderated by experience in group daycare before school entry. Thus, HCC suggest that starting elementary school is accompanied by increased stress hormone levels in young (in particular fearful) children.

Enhancing home-based child care quality through video-feedback intervention: a randomized controlled trial.

In the present randomized controlled trial, the effectiveness of video-feedback intervention to promote positive parenting-child care (VIPP-CC) was tested in home-based child care. Forty-eight caregivers were randomly assigned either to the intervention group or to the control group. Global child care quality improved in the intervention group but not in the control group. The program did not change observed caregiver sensitivity. After the intervention however, caregivers in the intervention group reported a more positive attitude toward sensitive caregiving than caregivers in the control group. The study shows that the family-based intervention can be applied with some minor modifications in a professional group setting as well. The brief VIPP-CC program is an important tool for enhancing quality of home-based child care.

Gender-Differentiated Parenting Revisited: Meta-Analysis Reveals Very Few Differences in Parental Control of Boys and Girls

Although various theories describe mechanisms leading to differential parenting of boys and girls, there is no consensus about the extent to which parents do treat their sons and daughters differently. The last meta-analyses on the subject were conducted more than fifteen years ago, and changes in gender-specific child rearing in the past decade are quite plausible. In the current set of meta-analyses, based on 126 observational studies (15,034 families), we examined mothers’ and fathers’ differential use of autonomy-supportive and controlling strategies with boys and girls, and the role of moderators related to the decade in which the study was conducted, the observational context, and sample characteristics. Databases of Web of Science, ERIC, PsychInfo, Online Contents, Picarta, and Proquest were searched for studies examining differences in observed parental control of boys and girls between the ages of 0 and 18 years. Few differences were found in parents’ use of control with boys and girls. Parents were slightly more controlling with boys than with girls, but the effect size was negligible (d = 0.08). The effect was larger, but still small, in normative groups and in samples with younger children. No overall effect for gender-differentiated autonomy-supportive strategies was found (d = 0.03). A significant effect of time emerged: studies published in the 1970s and 1980s reported more autonomy-supportive strategies with boys than toward girls, but from 1990 onwards parents showed somewhat more autonomy-supportive strategies with girls than toward boys. Taking into account parents’ gender stereotypes might uncover subgroups of families where gender-differentiated control is salient, but based on our systematic review of the currently available large data base we conclude that in general the differences between parenting of boys versus girls are minimal.

Boys Don’t Play with Dolls: Mothers’ and Fathers’ Gender Talk during Picture Book Reading

SYNOPSIS Objective. This study examines mothers’ and fathers’ gender talk with their daughters and sons and investigates the association between parental gender talk and parental implicit gender stereotypes. Design. Mothers’ and fathers’ gender talk was examined in 304 families with two children aged 2 and 4 years old, using the newly developed Gender Stereotypes Picture Book. Parental implicit gender stereotypes were assessed with the action inference paradigm. Results. The picture book elicited different forms of gender talk, including use of gender labels, evaluative comments related to gender, and comments about gender stereotypes. Mothers used positive evaluative comments more than fathers to convey messages about gender, but fathers made more comments confirming gender stereotypes than mothers. Fathers with two boys were more inclined to emphasize appropriate male behavior in their gender talk than fathers in other family types. Implicit gender stereotypes were associated with gender talk to the children only for mothers. Conclusion. The assessment of gender talk with the Gender Stereotypes Picture Book can provide insights into the roles of mothers and fathers in child gender socialization.

Downregulation of the immune system in low-quality child care: The case of Secretory Immunoglobulin A (SIgA) in toddlers

Does the experience of stress during child care lead to downregulation of the immune system, in particular in low-quality care? Saliva was collected from 68 toddlers attending center or family child care at home and at child care, and assayed for secretory IgA (SIgA). Caregiver sensitivity was used as an index of quality of care and was observed during three videotaped episodes of 10 min. Diurnal patterns of SIgA showed a steep fall in the morning followed by a flattening out. SIgA was not associated with type of care, but lower caregiver sensitivity was associated with lower SIgA levels in both types of care. Quality of child care is associated with a non-specific secretory component of childrens mucosal immunity with well established protective effects against upper respiratory infections.

Mothers' and Fathers' Sensitivity with Their Two Children: A Longitudinal Study from Infancy to Early Childhood.

To examine the effects of child age and birth order on sensitive parenting, 364 families with 2 children were visited when the second-born children were 12, 24, and 36 months old, and their older siblings were on average 2 years older. Mothers showed higher levels of sensitivity than fathers at all assessments. Parental sensitivity increased from infancy to toddlerhood, and then decreased into early childhood. The changes in parental sensitivity with child age were similar for mothers and fathers, and mothers’ and fathers’ sensitivity levels were related over time. However, the changes in parental sensitivity toward the firstborn and second-born child were not related to each other, suggesting that parents’ experiences with the firstborn child do not have implications for their sensitivity toward their second-born child. Instead, the child’s own unique characteristics and developmental stage seem to play a more important role. These findings highlight the importance of considering developmental child characteristics in the study of parenting, and suggest that individual differences in attaining developmental milestones may affect parental sensitivity.

Sibling Gender Configuration and Family Processes

The current study focuses on the effects of sibling gender configuration on family processes during early childhood. In a sample of 369 two-parent families with two children (youngest 12 months, oldest about 2 years older), both siblings’ noncompliant and oppositional behaviors and fathers’ and mothers’ sensitivity and discipline strategies were observed. Both siblings’ aggressive behaviors and empathy of the oldest sibling were assessed with parent-reports. Children in families with two sons showed more problematic interaction patterns compared with children in families with an oldest girl. In families with two boys, older siblings were more aggressive and fathers were less sensitive toward their youngest child in comparison with families with two girls. Furthermore, in boy–boy families older siblings showed more oppositional behavior and younger siblings more noncompliance compared with girl–boy families. These findings highlight the importance of sibling gender configuration in the development of child behavior and parent–child interactions.

Randomized Video-Feedback Intervention in Home-Based Childcare: Improvement of Children’s Wellbeing Dependent on Time Spent with Trusted Caregiver

BackgroundThe childcare environment offers a wide array of developmental opportunities for children. Providing children with a feeling of security to explore this environment is one of the most fundamental goals of childcare.ObjectiveIn the current study the effectiveness of Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting-Child Care (VIPP-CC) was tested on children’s wellbeing in home-based childcare in a randomized controlled trial.MethodsForty-seven children and their caregivers were randomly assigned to the intervention group or control group. Children’s wellbeing, caregiver sensitivity, and global childcare quality were observed during a pretest and a posttest.ResultsWe did not find an overall intervention effect on child wellbeing, but a significant interaction effect with months spent with a trusted caregiver was present. Children who were less familiar with the caregiver showed an increase in wellbeing scores in both the intervention and control group, but for the group of children who were more familiar with the caregiver, wellbeing increased only in the intervention group.ConclusionsAlthough there was no overall effect of the VIPP-CC on children’s wellbeing, the VIPP-CC seems effective in children who have been cared for by the same trusted caregiver for a longer period of time.

To share or not to share : Parental, sibling, and situational influences on sharing with a younger sibling

Sharing is an important indicator of internalised prosocial values. We examined predictors of sharing of 302 preschoolers with their younger siblings in a one-year longitudinal study. Sharing was observed during different home visits, once with father and once with mother. We examined the following predictors: both children’s externalising behaviour, observed parental sensitivity, and situational factors. Preschoolers’ sharing was stable and increased with age. Preschoolers shared more when sharing was preceded by a structured interaction with a parent compared to free play with an unfamiliar adult. At age 4 they shared more in fathers’ presence than in mothers’ presence. Neither parental sensitivity nor child behaviour were related to sharing. These findings demonstrate stability and the importance of situational factors in the development of prosocial behaviour.

The Gendered Family Process Model: An Integrative Framework of Gender in the Family

This article reviews and integrates research on gender-related biological, cognitive, and social processes that take place in or between family members, resulting in a newly developed gendered family process (GFP) model. The GFP model serves as a guiding framework for research on gender in the family context, calling for the integration of biological, social, and cognitive factors. Biological factors in the model are prenatal, postnatal, and pubertal androgen levels of children and parents, and genetic effects on parent and child gendered behavior. Social factors are family sex composition (i.e., parent sex, sexual orientation, marriage status, sibling sex composition) and parental gender socialization, such as modeling, gender-differentiated parenting, and gender talk. Cognitive factors are implicit and explicit gender-role cognitions of parents and children. Our review and the GFP model confirm that gender is an important organizer of family processes, but also highlight that much is still unclear about the mechanisms underlying gender-related processes within the family context. Therefore, we stress the need for (1) longitudinal studies that take into account the complex bidirectional relationship between parent and child gendered behavior and cognitions, in which within-family comparisons (comparing behavior of parents toward a boy and a girl in the same family) are made instead of between-family comparisons (comparing parenting between all-boy families and all-girl families, or between mixed-gender families and same-gender families), (2) experimental studies on the influence of testosterone on human gender development, (3) studies examining the interplay between biology with gender socialization and gender-role cognitions in humans.