Martine Braaksma

Observational learning and its effects on the orchestration of writing processes

In this study, we examined why observational learning positively affects learning outcomes of new writing tasks. In this study, we focused on the effects of observational learning on the temporal organization (i.e., orchestration) of writing processes and on the subsequent influence on text quality. An experiment was set up in which participants (N = 52; 8th-grade students) were assigned to 1 of 2 observational-learning conditions or a control (CO) condition. In the observational-learning conditions, participants learned by observing peer models writing processes and in the CO condition by performing writing tasks. To measure the orchestration of writing processes, the participants performed posttest-writing tasks under think-aloud conditions.

Literary Reading Activities of Good and Weak Students: A Think Aloud Study

In this study we examined how good and weak students of literature interact with short literary stories. We focused on differences in the use of cognitive and affective reading activities, and in the extent to which good and weak students adapt their activities to (parts of) the story they are reading.19 Dutch tenth-grade students from 8 classes participated in the study, of whom 10 were known to be good students of literature and 9 were known as weak literature students. Each student read five literary stories under think aloud conditions. The stories were presented segment by segment on a computer screen. Students responses were transcribed, segmented and coded. Analysis of variance was applied to the data to test the diffrences between good and weak students.Results show that good students were more evaluative and emotional in their responses to the stories than were their weaker peers. Moreover, they appeared to be more sensitive to differences between stories than were weak students. Implications for further research and for literature teaching are outlined.RésuméL’objectif de cette recherche est d’analyser l’approche de textes littéraires par les lecteurs débutants, forts et faibles en littérature. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur les différences concernant d’une part l’emploi d’activités cognitives et affectives et d’autre part la mesure où les lecteurs forts et faibles adaptent leurs stratégies au texte, intégral ou partiel, qu ’ils sont en train de lire.19 lycéens néerlandais, tirés de 8 classes, ont participé à la recherche: 10 d’entre eux étant reconnus ‘forts’ en littérature et 9 ‘faibles’. Chaque élève a lu 5 textes littéraires en formulant à haute voix ses pensées, les textes littéraires étant présentés en fragments à l’écran d’ordinateur. Les pensées ainsi formulées ont été transcrites, segmentées et codées. Nous avons évalué les différences entre élèves forts et élèves faibles en appliquant la méthode d’analyse statistique.La recherche a avéré que l’évaluation des textes littéraires faite par les élèves forts a été plus élaborée que celle faites par élèves faibles. Par rapport aux élèves faibles. les élèves forts se sont montrés plus sensibles aux différences entre les textes littéraires. A la fin de l’article nous montrons les conséquences pour des recherches ultérieures et pour l’enseignement littéraire.

Effective learning activities in observation taks when learning to write and read argumentative texts

On repeated occasions, observational learning has proved itself to be an effective instruction method. Experimental studies have shown to be effective for complex tasks such as reading and writing for both teachers and students as models. The problem when interpreting the results of such research is that, in observation tasks, several mental activities play a simultaneous role. In this study we therefore set out to identify the effective elements of observation tasks. We focused on two elements of the observation tasks, both aimed at stimulating monitoring activities: evaluation of the model’s performance and elaboration on this evaluation. We have also distinguished between elaboration on the observed products (the models’ written answers), and elaboration on the observed processes (the models’ verbalisations of their mental activities).The data were subjected to a LISREL analysis. First of all, it was observed that subjects who performed “evaluation” and “productelaboration” better, and “process-elaboration” more often in one lesson, also performed these activities better or more often in the subsequent lesson. Next, we observed an effect of aptitude on the learning activities: pre skill scores influence “evaluation” and “product-elaboration”. The most important finding is that “evaluation” and “product-elaboration” contribute positively to argumentative writing skills. It is discussed that these findings confirm the importance of the monitoring, evaluative and reflective activities when learning complex tasks as writing.RésuméComparativement à l’apprentissage par l’action, la méthode d’apprentissage par l’observation c’est plus efficace. On sait queles études expérimentales s’appliquent bien à destâches complexes comme la lecture et la production écrite, à la fois chez les enseignants et chez les élèves, pris comme modèles. Portant l’interprétation des résultats expérimentaux pose un problème puis que dans les tâches d’observation, plusieurs activités interviennent simultanément. Dans la présente étude, nous voulons identifier les éléments réellement critiques dans ces tâches d’observation. Nous nous sommes intéressés à deux d’entre eux: ‘l’évaluation’ et ‘l’élaboration’ (du ‘produit’ et du ‘processus’).Pour le traitement des donées nous avons utilisée par la méthode LISREL. En premier lieu, les sujets qui, dans une première leçon, réalisent plus souvent correctement les activités d’apprentissage ‘évaluation’ et ‘élaboration du produit’, et réalisent plus souvent ‘élaboration du processus’, réussissent de la même façon dans le leçon suivante. En outre, nous avons constaté quel’existe un effet d’aptitude: les aptitudes établies préalablement influencent ‘l’évaluation’ et ‘l’élaboration du produit’. Le plus important résultat c’est des effets positifs de ‘l’évaluation’ et de ‘l’élaboration du produit’ sur les performances d’écrire argumentatives. Ce résultat confirme l’importance des activités monitor, évaluation et réflexion pendant l’apprentissage des taches complexes comme écrire.

Self-questioning in the literature classroom: effects on students’ interpretation and appreciation of short stories

In this study we examined the effects of self-questioning on students’ interpretation and appreciation of complex short stories. Two experiments were carried out, in which tenth grade students from different secondary schools participated. In Experiment 1 self-questioning instruction was compared to instructor-made questions about stories. In Experiment 2 two forms of self-questioning instruction were compared: an unguided and a guided form. Literature discussions in peer groups formed a substantial part of all conditions. Results showed that (unguided) self-questioning had a positive effect on students’ appreciation of literary stories, compared to instructor-prepared questions and to guided self-questioning. The results for quality of interpretation were more diffuse. In Experiment 1 effects on students’ story interpretation could not be established. In Experiment 2 a main effect on story interpretation was found for both the guided and unguided form of self-questioning instruction. In addition, students’ reading experience appeared to be important for the effectiveness of the unguided self-questioning condition: avid readers tended to benefit more from this condition than infrequent readers. We conclude that an open literature approach, based on ‘authentic’ student-generated questions in response to short stories, can be beneficial for students’ story interpretation and appreciation.

Process execution of writing and reading: considering text quality, learner and task characteristics

We have conducted systematic reflections, data reanalyses, and incorporated results from several studies to promote discussion, enhance understanding, and build theory. Two models guide our research and analyses: The Descriptive Interactive Process (DIP) model (Fig. 20.1, left), and the Experimental Interactive Process (EIP) model (Fig. 20.1, right). In the DIP model, the main idea is to study processes: What happens during task execution, and how does the process change accordingly? The complexity can be illustrated by adding three components to the model: (a) quality of the output—what variation in processes is related to variation in output quality?; (b) task characteristics—what degree do processes vary with task features (e.g., computer versus pen-and-paper writing)?; and (c) learner characteristics—what degree doesthe way skilled versus unskilled writers adjust their process to tasks vary? In the EIP model (Fig. 20.1, right), the general aim is to detect the effect of interventions on processes: Do different instructional variables affect thetarget process differently? This model can be extended by adding the product variable—Do instructional variables affect the target process differently, and does the product quality vary accordingly?—and learner characteristics: Does the way instructional variables affect the target process vary with regard to learner characteristics? Do good writers profit as much from the experimental instruction as poor writers? Does the experimental instruction change the processes carried out while writing in the same way for good and poor writers?

Writing Hypertexts: Proposed effects on writing processes and knowledge acquisition

In this paper we propose that hypertext writing at school could have beneficial effects on the acquisition of content knowledge and the acquisition of writing skills compared to linear writing. We view the effects of hypertext writing on writing skills from the perspective of “shared” cognitive activities in writing linear texts and hypertexts. In a pilot study we examined the effects of hypertext writing on writing processes and we related the occurrence of writing processes to the quality of the resulting writing products. We set up this study to identify students’ cognitive activities during hypertext and linear writing. We also tried to determine whether hypertext writing could facilitate linear writing. We focused on the most central, distinctive features of linear and hypertext writing. For linear writing, this is a linearization process: i.e., transforming elements of content into linear text. For hypertext writing, this is a hierarchicalization process: converting a linearly presented line of thought into a hierarchical structure. Students (N=123) from Grades 8 and 9 performed two linearization tasks and two hierarchicalization tasks under think aloud conditions. Results showed that Planning and Analyzing activities contributed to the final quality of hypertexts and linear texts, and that these activities were more often elicited in hypertext tasks than in linear writing. We argue that writing hypertexts stimulates the use of writing activities that are positively related to writing proficiency. Moreover, we speculate that creating hypertext writing conditions and optimizing these conditions for different writer/learner styles might be a theoretical and practical challenge for mother tongue teaching.

Focus on form through task repetition in TBLT

Because there has been little research on focus on form during the post-task phase in task-based language teaching, this experimental study investigates the effects of task repetition after having directed learners’ attention to form during the main task. The study comprises two interventions, where each consisted of a task with a focus on a particular language structure. Forty-eight ninth-grade students learning German as a foreign language were randomly assigned to two conditions: one group repeated a similar task (R); the other group did not (NR). The first intervention targeted the German dative case after a preposition; the second German comparatives. Pretests, immediate and delayed posttests measured metalinguistic knowledge, written and oral accuracy as well as oral fluency. Results showed that on written accuracy and metalinguistic knowledge, the R condition outperformed the NR condition on both structures. No significant differences between conditions were found on oral accuracy and fluency.

Focus on language versus content in the pre-task: Effects of guided peer-video model observations on task performance:

The present experimental study examined whether a different focus during a pre-task planning observation task affects learners’ subsequent oral task performance. Forty-eight ninth-grade students learning German as a foreign language were randomly assigned to two different planning conditions: video observations with a focus on language (FonL) and video observations with a focus on content (FonC). With a communicative oral task we measured the effects on oral task performance, in terms of attempted (accurate) use of the target structure and complexity, in terms of number of words, subordination and coordination. In addition we investigated whether there was a trade-off between attempted (accurate) use of the target structure and complexity. Results showed that the focus of the observations at the pre-task stage did indeed lead to different outcomes: students in the language condition used the grammatical target structure more often and more accurately, whereas students of the content condition generated more coordinate and subordinate clauses. Trade-offs were found between attempted (accurate) use of the target structure and the use of subordinate clauses. These findings imply that, depending on the purposes of the lesson, the observation of peer-model videos with different planning foci can be effectively used to promote (accurate) use of targeted grammatical structures and improve complexity during subsequent task performance.