Masaharu Motoshita

Review of methods addressing freshwater use in life cycle inventory and impact assessment

PurposeIn recent years, several methods have been developed which propose different freshwater use inventory schemes and impact assessment characterization models considering various cause–effect chain relationships. This work reviewed a multitude of methods and indicators for freshwater use potentially applicable in life cycle assessment (LCA). This review is used as a basis to identify the key elements to build a scientific consensus for operational characterization methods for LCA.MethodsThis evaluation builds on the criteria and procedure developed within the International Reference Life Cycle Data System Handbook and has been adapted for the purpose of this project. It therefore includes (1) description of relevant cause–effect chains, (2) definition of criteria to evaluate the existing methods, (3) development of sub-criteria specific to freshwater use, and (4) description and review of existing methods addressing freshwater in LCA.Results and discussionNo single method is available which comprehensively describes all potential impacts derived from freshwater use. However, this review highlights several key findings to design a characterization method encompassing all the impact pathways of the assessment of freshwater use and consumption in life cycle assessment framework as the following: (1) in most of databases and methods, consistent freshwater balances are not reported either because output is not considered or because polluted freshwater is recalculated based on a critical dilution approach; (2) at the midpoint level, most methods are related to water scarcity index and correspond to the methodological choice of an indicator simplified in terms of the number of parameters (scarcity) and freshwater uses (freshwater consumption or freshwater withdrawal) considered. More comprehensive scarcity indices distinguish different freshwater types and functionalities. (3) At the endpoint level, several methods already exist which report results in units compatible with traditional human health and ecosystem quality damage and cover various cause–effect chains, e.g., the decrease of terrestrial biodiversity due to freshwater consumption. (4) Midpoint and endpoint indicators have various levels of spatial differentiation, i.e., generic factors with no differentiation at all, or country, watershed, and grid cell differentiation.ConclusionsExisting databases should be (1) completed with input and output freshwater flow differentiated according to water types based on its origin (surface water, groundwater, and precipitation water stored as soil moisture), (2) regionalized, and (3) if possible, characterized with a set of quality parameters. The assessment of impacts related to freshwater use is possible by assembling methods in a comprehensive methodology to characterize each use adequately.

Analysis of water use impact assessment methods (part A): evaluation of modeling choices based on a quantitative comparison of scarcity and human health indicators

PurposeIn the past decade, several methods have emerged to quantify water scarcity, water availability and the human health impacts of water use. It was recommended that a quantitative comparison of methods should be performed to describe similar impact pathways, namely water scarcity and human health impacts from water deprivation. This is precisely the goal of this paper, which aims to (1) identify the key relevant modeling choices that explain the main differences between characterization models leading to the same impact indicators; (2) quantify the significance of the differences between methods, and (3) discuss the main methodological choices in order to guide method development and harmonization efforts.MethodsThe modeling choices are analysed for similarity of results (using mean relative difference) and model response consistency (through rank correlation coefficient). Uncertainty data associated with the choice of model are provided for each of the models analysed, and an average value is provided as a tool for sensitivity analyses.ResultsThe results determined the modeling choices that significantly influence the indicators and should be further analysed and harmonised, such as the regional scale at which the scarcity indicator is calculated, the sources of underlying input data and the function adopted to describe the relationship between modeled scarcity indicators and the original withdrawal-to-availability or consumption-to-availability ratios. The inclusion or exclusion of impacts from domestic user deprivation and the inclusion or exclusion of trade effects both strongly influence human health impacts. At both midpoint and endpoint, the comparison showed that considering reduced water availability due to degradation in water quality, in addition to a reduction in water quantity, greatly influences results. Other choices are less significant in most regions of the world. Maps are provided to identify the regions in which such choices are relevant.ConclusionsThis paper provides useful insights to better understand scarcity, availability and human health impact models for water use and identifies the key relevant modeling choices and differences, making it possible to quantify model uncertainty and the significance of these choices in a specific regional context. Maps of regions where these specific choices are of importance were generated to guide practitioners in identifying locations for sensitivity analyses in water footprint studies. Finally, deconstructing the existing models and highlighting the differences and similarities has helped to determine building blocks to support the development of a consensual method.

Consistent characterisation factors at midpoint and endpoint relevant to agricultural water scarcity arising from freshwater consumption

PurposeThe shortage of agricultural water from freshwater sources is a growing concern because of the relatively large amounts needed to sustain food production for an increasing population. In this context, an impact assessment methodology is indispensable for the identification and assessment of the potential consequences of freshwater consumption in relation to agricultural water scarcity. This paper reports on the consistent development of midpoint and endpoint characterisation factors (CFs) for assessing these impacts.MethodsMidpoint characterisation factors focus specifically on shortages in food production resulting from agricultural water scarcity. These were calculated by incorporating country-specific compensation factors for physical availability of water resources and socio-economic capacity in relation to the irrigation water demand for agriculture. At the endpoint, to reflect the more complex impact pathways from food production losses to malnutrition damage from agricultural water scarcity, international food trade relationships and economic adaptation capacity were integrated in the modelling with measures of nutritional vulnerability for each country.Results and discussionThe inter-country variances of CFs at the midpoint revealed by this study were larger than those derived using previously developed methods, which did not integrate compensation processes by food stocks. At the endpoint level, both national and trade-induced damage through international trade were quantified and visualised. Distribution of malnutrition damage was also determined by production and trade balances for commodity groups in water-consuming countries, as well as dependency on import ratios for importer countries and economic adaptation capacity in each country. By incorporating the complex relationships between these factors, estimated malnutrition damage due to freshwater consumption at the country scale showed good correlation with total reported nutritional deficiency damage.ConclusionsThe model allows the establishment of consistent CFs at the midpoint and endpoint for agricultural water scarcity resulting from freshwater consumption. The complex relationships between food production supply and nutrition damage can be described by considering the physical and socio-economic parameters used in this study. Developed CFs contribute to a better assessment of the potential impacts associated with freshwater consumption in global supply chains and to life cycle assessment and water footprint assessments.

Analysis of water use impact assessment methods (part B): applicability for water footprinting and decision making with a laundry case study

PurposeThe integration of different water impact assessment methods within a water footprinting concept is still ongoing, and a limited number of case studies have been published presenting a comprehensive study of all water-related impacts. Although industries are increasingly interested in assessing their water footprint beyond a simple inventory assessment, they often lack guidance regarding the applicability and interpretation of the different methods available. This paper aims to illustrate how different water-related methods can be applied within a water footprint study of a laundry detergent and discuss their applicability.MethodsThe concept of water footprinting, as defined by the recently published ISO Standard (ISO 2014), is illustrated through the case study of a load of laundry using water availability and water degradation impact categories. At the midpoint, it covers scarcity, availability, and pollution indicators such as eutrophication, acidification, human, and eco-toxicity. At the endpoint, impacts on human health and ecosystems are covered for water deprivation and degradation. Sensitivity analyses are performed on the most sensitive modeling choices identified in part A of this paper.Results and discussionThe applicability of the different methodologies and their interpretation within a water footprint concept for decision making is presented. The discussion covers general applicability issues such as inventory flow definition, data availability, regionalization, and inclusion of wastewater treatment systems. Method-specific discussion covers the use of interim ecotoxicity factors, the interaction of scarcity and availability assessments and the limits of such methods, and the geographic coverage and availability of impact assessment methods. Lastly, possible double counting, databases, software, data quality, and integration of a water footprint within a life cycle assessment (LCA) are discussed.ConclusionsThis study has shown that water footprinting as proposed in the ISO standard can be applied to a laundry detergent product but with caveats. The science and the data availability are rapidly evolving, but the results obtained with present methods enable companies to map where in the life cycle and in the world impacts might occur.

Assessing the Replacement of Electrical Home Appliances for the Environment

To evaluate whether replacing an existing product with a new, more energy‐efficient product is environmentally preferable, we used an assessment approach based on life cycle assessment. With this approach, consumers can assess various replacement products, including products of different sizes or environmental performance in addition to consideration of various conditions of product use. The approach utilizes a diagram in which replacement conditions of products are compared with iso‐environmental‐load lines to determine the appropriateness of replacement. The approach also allows the assessment of energy and resource consumption and environmental impacts not only during the use stage, but also at other product stages. Iso‐environmental‐load lines to assess delayed replacement were also examined and derived. We then applied the approach in a case study of energy consumption by replacing three types of electric home appliances in Japan: TVs, air conditioners, and refrigerators. The results of assessment showed that replacing refrigerators after 8–10 years of use was preferable even if the replacement product was larger. The appropriateness of replacing TVs and air conditioners based on energy consumption depended on the replacement product and on the duration of daily use, and in several cases, delayed replacement was preferable. Replacement of air conditioners after 8–10 years of use was not preferable if the consumer already owned the most energy‐efficient product at the time of the purchase. The necessity of accounting for a variety of available replacement products was confirmed.

Development of water footprint inventory database on Japanese goods and services distinguishing the types of water resources and the forms of water uses based on input-output analysis

PurposeWater footprint is expected as a tool to identify critical and effective points for reducing the impact of water use through the entire life cycle of products, services, and organizations. The purpose of this study is to develop a water footprint inventory database that makes it possible to account the water intensities of all the Japanese goods and services with a differentiation for the types of water resources and the forms of water uses.MethodsAn input-output analysis was applied to establish a comprehensive database covering all of the Japanese goods and services. The amount of water consumption in each sector was estimated by modeling (for agricultural goods) and determined based on the uses of input water according to the statistic reports and hearing survey results (for other sectors). The intensities of direct water input or consumption in each sector were calculated by dividing the amount of water input or consumption with the domestic production amount for each sector. Based on the input-output analysis by using Leontief’s inverse matrix, the intensities of water use and consumption from cradle to gate were estimated for all goods and services in 403 sectors of Japan.Results and discussionThe intensities of water input and consumption in the primary sectors of industry from cradle to gate showed large values and high dependency on rain water as the sources of input water. While the water input intensities in secondary sector of industry were relatively higher than those in tertiary sector of industry, the water consumption intensities generally showed larger reduction in secondary sectors in comparison with those in tertiary sectors due to the utilization of recycling water. The results of comparing the intensities in this study with previous studies showed some differences due to the consideration of site-specific conditions in production and the temporal resolution for the calculation of consumed amount in crop production.ConclusionsBy considering the site-specific conditions, the intensities were developed as the datasets suitable for water footprint of products, services, and organizations in Japan. While this database would be expected to be applied to the implementation of water footprint, the reflection of the effects by imported goods and services through international trade needs to be conducted in the future study for improving the preciseness and reliability of the results of water footprint.

Water Footprinting in Life Cycle Assessment: How to Count the Drops and Assess the Impacts?

Freshwater scarcity is a relevant problem for more than one billion people around the globe. Therefore, the analysis of water consumption along the supply chain of products is of increasing relevance in current sustainability discussions. This chapter aims at providing insight into the scientific development and practical application of water footprinting. In a comprehensive literature review, more than 30 water footprint methods, tools, databases, and standards have been identified and discussed. The scopes of different water footprint approaches vary regarding the types of water use accounted for, the distinction of water courses, and the consideration of temporal and regional aspects such as water scarcity and sensitivity of population or ecosystems for impact assessment. In order to illustrate the application of water footprinting, several case studies representing different levels of complexity (crops to cars) and scientific standards (liter to disability-adjusted life year, DALY) are presented. Subsequently, key methodological challenges are identified ranging from the adequate resolution of inventory flows to the consideration of water quality aspects. As the most advanced methods require the highest resolution inventory data, the trade-off between precision and applicability is a key challenge, which needs to be addressed in future database and method developments. Such future developments are the subject of the closing section, which, e.g., provides an outlook on the consensus impact assessment model being currently developed by the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative. Moreover, the increasing relevance of water footprinting in decision-making and communication strategies is discussed along with opportunities and limitations of water footprinting.

The 10th International Conference on EcoBalance (EcoBalance 2012) - Challenges and Solutions for Sustainable Society, November 20-23, 2012, Tokyo, Japan

The 10th International Conference on EcoBalance (EcoBalance 2012), organized by The Institute of Life Cycle Assessment, Japan, was held during November 20–23, 2012 at the Hiyoshi Campus of Keio University in Yokohama City. The conference was co-hosted by Keio University and The Ecomaterial Forum, and backed by the Cabinet Office; the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology; the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries; the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry; the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism; and the Ministry of Environment. It was also supported by 74 related societies and associations. The Commemorative Organization for the Japan World Exposition ‘70 and the Life Cycle Assessment Society of Japan provided monetary aid for the management of the conference. In addition, the event was co-sponsored by the following eight corporations and groups:

EcoBalance 2016-responsible value chains for sustainability (October 3-6, 2016, Kyoto, Japan)

The International Conference on EcoBalance, organized by the Institute of Life Cycle Assessment, Japan (ILCAJ), has been held as a biennial conference in Japan since 1994 (Morimoto 1999; The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2000; Inaba et al. 2003; Matsuno et al. 2005; Matsuno and Moriguchi 2007; Nakajima and Matsuno 2009; Nansai et al. 2011; Miyamoto et al. 2013; Kondo et al. 2014). With the life cycle concept as its core concept, EcoBalance has become recognized as one of the world’s premier conferences for academic, industry and government professionals. EcoBalance serves as a forum for discussions on environmental performance evaluation, information disclosure regarding evaluation results, and for the development and implementation of the methods discussed. The 12th EcoBalance conference, EcoBalance 2016, was convened on 3–6 October 2016 in Kyoto, Japan. The overall theme of EcoBalance 2016 was, BResponsible value chains for sustainability .̂ EcoBalance 2016 aimed to discuss the challenges associated with incorporating sustainable value chains that create corporate value in business, collaborating with various stakeholders, and identifying solutions based on scientific knowledge. Given this context, we invited three distinguished keynote speakers who shared their insights on the role of life cycle thinking and how it can be used to achieve responsible value chains. In the scientific program, 310 presentations covered overarching topics (methodology of life cycle assessment (LCA), applications in practice, policy implications, etc.), and intensive discussions were used to forge links between the areas of science, real practice and policymaking. Over the course of the conference, 372 international attendees from 28 countries contributed to numerous valuable discussions. In addition to the main scientific program, several official side-events were convened on corporate information disclosure, E-waste, sustainable food supply chains, urban mining and global LCA data access network. This year, we convened an BEcoBalance International School^ on a trial basis to provide attendees with the opportunity to acquire fundamental, but state-of-the-art, knowledge on life cycle assessment from distinguished international experts. These two courses, BLife Cycle Assessment: theory and practice^ by Prof. Sangwon Suh from the University of California, Santa Barbara in the USA, and BCurrent Developments in Life Cycle Impact Assessment^ by Prof. Francesca Verones from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Norway were both well attended. A Young Researchers Meeting was also held to give young attendees the opportunity to communicate with each other and network. Taken together, these events helped attendees to benefit from their * Masaharu Motoshita m-motoshita@aist.go.jp

Damage Assessment Model for Freshwater Consumption and a Case Study on PET Bottle Production Applied New Technology for Water Footprint Reduction

The effects of freshwater consumption will differ from country to country depending on the availability of freshwater resource and adaptability to water scarcity. In this study, damage assessment model focused on human health and social asset damage caused by freshwater consumption was developed based on statistical data analysis. Calculated damage factors showed that undernourishment damage due to agricultural water scarcity was a dominant effect in most countries due to the ripple effects of international food trade. Case study of PET bottle production was performed to verify the availability of calculated damage factors and quantitatively assess the effectiveness of freshwater savings by applying new developed filling technology of PET bottle. No small reduction of environmental impact by advanced filling technology will be expected through the savings of freshwater consumption.