Matthew Coxon

Individual differences in virtual reality: Are spatial presence and spatial ability linked?

One aim of virtual reality technology is to immerse the user in a digital environment that is distinct from physical reality. Feeling spatially located in this digital environment is central to the experience and is more formally known as spatial presence. Experiences of spatial presence differ between individuals; prominent theories assume that these differences may, in part, be explained by differences in more general spatial abilities. Whilst there is some support for this claim with desktop systems, there is currently no direct empirical evidence to support this with more immersive technologies such as head-mounted displays (HMDs). In this study, participants completed three different measures of spatial ability before experiencing two virtual environments. These measures included a self-report of visuospatial imagery; the mental rotations test; and a test of topographical memory. After completing the measures, participants briefly experienced a virtual city and a virtual train ride through a HMD. The user’s head movements were tracked, and visual displays were updated to give the sense of a full 360° environment. After each experience, the participants reported how present they felt and the extent to which they had a mental model of the environment. Self-reports of imagery were positively correlated with reports of spatial presence, consistent with the previous literature. However, spatial presence was not related to performance on either of the more objective tests. Whilst this provides confirmatory evidence that self-reports of imagery can predict presence, it is still unclear which more basic spatial abilities, if any, could underlie this relationship.

The effect of stereo and context on memory and awareness states in immersive virtual environments

Spatial awareness is crucial for human performance efficiency of any task that entails perception of space. Memory of spaces is an imperfect reflection of the cognitive activity (awareness states) that underlies performance in such environments. Furthermore, performance on these tasks may also be influenced by the context of the environment. This research investigates the effect of stereo viewing on object recognition after exposure to an immersive VE, in terms of both scene context and associated awareness states. The immersive simulation consisted of a radiosity-rendered room that was either populated by objects consistent with an office setting or by primitive objects located in similar positions. The simulation was displayed on a stereo head-tracked Head Mounted Display. Twenty-four participants across two visual conditions of varying depth cues (absence vs presence of stereo cues) were exposed to the VE and completed an object-based memory recognition task. Participants also reported one of four states of awareness following each recognition response which reflected whether visual mental imagery was induced during retrieval. Results revealed better memory of objects that were consistent with the environment context and associated with vivid memorial experiences when the space was viewed in stereo.

Sound Can Enhance the Analgesic Effect of Virtual Reality.

Virtual reality (VR) technology may serve as an effective non-pharmacological analgesic to aid pain management. During VR distraction, the individual is immersed in a game presented through a head-mounted display (HMD). The technological level of the HMD can vary, as can the use of different input devices and the inclusion of sound. While more technologically advanced designs may lead to more effective pain management the specific roles of individual components within such systems are not yet fully understood. Here, the role of supplementary auditory information was explored owing to its particular ecological relevance. Healthy adult participants took part in a series of cold-pressor trials submerging their hand in cold water for as long as possible. Individual pain tolerances were measured according to the time (in seconds) before the participant withdrew their hand. The concurrent use of a VR game and the inclusion of sound was varied systematically within participants. In keeping with previous literature, the use of a VR game increased pain tolerance across conditions. Highest pain tolerance was recorded when participants were simultaneously exposed to both the VR game and supplementary sound. The simultaneous inclusion of sound may therefore play an important role when designing VR to manage pain.

The effect of tracking delay on awareness states in immersive virtual environments: an initial exploration

This paper presents an experimental methodology exploring the effect of tracking latency on object recognition after exposure to an immersive VE, in terms of both scene context and associated awareness states. System latency (time delay) and its visible consequences are fundamental Virtual Environment (VE) deficiencies that can hamper spatial awareness and memory. The immersive simulation consisted of a radiosity-rendered space divided in three zones including a kitchen/dining area, an office area and a lounge area. The space was populated by objects consistent as well as inconsistent with each zones context. The simulation was displayed on a stereo head-tracked Head Mounted Display. Participants across two conditions of varying latency (system minimum latency vs added latency condition) were exposed to the VE and completed an object-based memory recognition task. Participants also reported one of three states of awareness following each recognition response which reflected either the recollection of contextual detail, the sense of familiarity unaccompanied by contextual information or even informed guesses. Preliminary results from initial pilot studies reveal better memory performance of objects in the low latency condition. A disproportionately large proportion of guess responses for consistent objects viewed with high latency is also observed and correspondingly a disproportionately low proportion of remember responses for consistent objects in the same latency condition.

Gender differences in spatial awareness in immersive virtual environments: a preliminary investigation

This paper presents an experiment exploring gender differences in spatial navigation, memory performance and spatial awareness through a complex Virtual Environment (VE). The immersive simulation consisted of a radiosity-rendered space divided in four zones including a kitchen area, a dining area, an office area and a lounge area. The space was populated with objects consistent as well as inconsistent with each zones context. The simulation was then displayed on a stereo head tracked Head Mounted Display. Participants were separated in two groups based on their gender. After being exposed to the VE, they completed an object-based memory recognition task. Participants also reported one of two states of awareness following each recognition response which reflected either the recollection of contextual detail or informed guesses. It was found that reported awareness states interacted with the context consistency of the objects: participants recollected more contextual detail when correctly identifying inconsistent objects compared to consistent objects. Furthermore, a clear gender difference was found with female participants correctly identifying objects in their correct location more often than the male participants.

Student polling software: where cognitive psychology meets educational practice?

The traditional lecture format still remains one of the most commonly used within higher education, yet it does not provide an optimal environment for learning (Draper and Brown, 2004). Here we will focus upon the use of questioning in large lecture halls and in particular the use of mass audience response systems (also known as clickers or polling systems). In writing this short opinion piece we will bring together some of the key findings from the educational literature, attention literature, memory literature, and wider debates within the Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) literature, to present an integrated case for the use of online polling software as a partial solution to the challenges of student engagement in lecture halls. To cut a long story short: it is relatively easy to do, students generally like it, and it may well be good for them.

Measuring Memories for Objects and Their Locations in Immersive Virtual Environments: The Subjective Component of Memorial Experience

The utility of Virtual Environment (VE) technologies for training systems is predicated upon the accuracy of the mental representation formed of the VE. It is therefore important to benchmark the use of these environments through the application of appropriate memory tests. In addition to measuring accuracy, a consideration for such tests is the quality of the memories being reported: Are these vivid memories where the person can mentally visualize the environment? Or are responses based on a strong feeling that happens to be correct? This chapter reviews what is currently known about these more subjective aspects of memories in respect to visualizations of immersive VEs. Current understanding about judgements of ‘remembering’ and ‘knowing’ will be summarised from the psychological literature. This will be related to recent attempts to measure these awareness states in VEs, and the consequences of these efforts. An information-processing approach is taken, interpreting the relationship between these experiences and potential influencing variables. As well as highlighting the importance of measuring the subjective component of memorial experience, a brief descriptive model is proposed to aid considerations of these issues in the design and implementation of such visualizations, and future research.