Matthew P. Fetrow

The effects of thermal equilibrium and contrast in LWIR polarimetric images

Long-wave infrared (LWIR) polarimetric signatures provide the potential for day-night detection and identification of objects in remotely sensed imagery. The source of optical energy in the LWIR is usually due to thermal emission from the object in question, which makes the signature dependent primarily on the target and not on the external environment. In this paper we explore the impact of thermal equilibrium and the temperature of (unseen) background objects on LWIR polarimetric signatures. We demonstrate that an object can completely lose its polarization signature when it is in thermal equilibrium with its optical background, even if it has thermal contrast with the objects that appear behind it in the image.

Results of a new polarization simulation

Including polarization signatures of material samples in passive sensing may enhance target detection capabilities. To obtain more information on this potential improvement, a simulation is being developed to aid in interpreting IR polarization measurements in a complex environment. The simulation accounts for the background, or incident illumination, and the scattering and emission from the target into the sensor. MODTRAN, in combination with a dipole approximation to singly scattered radiance, is used to polarimetrically model the background, or sky conditions. The scattering and emission from rough surfaces are calculated using an energy conserving polarimetric Torrance and Sparrow BRDF model. The simulation can be used to examine the surface properties of materials in a laboratory environment, to investigate IR polarization signatures in the field, or a complex environment, and to predict trends in LWIR polarization data. In this paper we discuss the simulation architecture, the process for determining and roughness as a function of wavelength, which involves making polarization measurements of flat glass plates at various angles and temperatures in the laboratory at Kirtland AF Base, and the comparison of the simulation with field dat taken at Elgin Air Force Base. The later process entails using the extrapolated index of refraction and surface roughness, and a polarimetric incident sky dome generated by MODTRAN. We also present some parametric studies in which the sky condition, the sky temperature and the sensor declination angle were all varied.

Unpolarized calibration and nonuniformity correction for long-wave infrared microgrid imaging polarimeters

Recent developments for long-wave infrared (LWIR) imaging polarimeters include incorporating a microgrid polarizer array onto the focal plane array. Inherent advantages over other classes of polarimeters include rugged packaging, inherent alignment of the optomechanical system, and temporal synchronization that facilitates instantaneous acquisition of both thermal and polarimetric information. On the other hand, the pixel-to-pixel instantaneous field-of-view error that is inherent in the microgrid strategy leads to false polarization signatures. Because of this error, residual pixel-to-pixel variations in the gain-corrected responsivity, the noise-equivalent input, and variations in the pixel-to-pixel micropolarizer performance are extremely important. The degree of linear polarization is highly sensitive to these parameters and is consequently used as a metric to explore instrument sensitivities. We explore the unpolarized calibration issues associated with this class of LWIR polarimeters and discuss the resulting false polarization signature for thermally flat test scenes.

Long wave infrared polarimetric model: theory, measurements and parameters

Material parameters, which include the complex index of refraction, (n,k), and surface roughness, are needed to determine passive long wave infrared (LWIR) polarimetric radiance. A single scatter microfacet bi-direction reflectance distribution function (BRDF) is central to the energy conserving (EC) model which determines emitted and reflected polarized surface radiance. Model predictions are compared to LWIR polarimetric data. An ellipsometry approach is described for finding an effective complex index of refraction or (n,k) averaged over the 8.5?9.5??m wavelength range. The reflected S3/S2 ratios, where S2 and S3 are components of the Stokes (Born and Wolf 1975 Principles of Optics (London: Pergamon) p?30) vector, are used to determine (n,k). An imaging polarimeter with a rotating retarder is utilized to measure the Stokes vector. Effective (n,k) and two EC optical roughness parameters are presented for roughened glass and several unprepared, typical outdoor materials including metals and paints. A two parameter slope distribution function is introduced which is more flexible in modelling the source reflected intensity profiles or BRDF data than one parameter Cauchy or Gaussian distributions (Jordan et al 1996 Appl. Opt. 35 3585?90; Priest and Meier 2002 Opt. Eng. 41 992). The glass results show that the (n,k) needed to model polarimetric emission and scatter differ from that for a smooth surface and that surface roughness reduces the degree of linear polarization.

Multispectral polarimeter imaging in the visible to near IR

Polarization imaging can provide significant improvements in contrast in a number of target detection and discrimination applications. A multi-spectral imaging polarimeter has been constructed for the development of discrimination methods that exploit the polarization properties of a scene. The Stokes vector of a given scene is computed from a sequence of retardance measurements made with the instrument. A significant effort has been made to create a fast polarimeter which can make the necessary retardance measurements to produce a set of Stokes images in a minimum amount of time before the scene changes significantly, which shows up as errors in the resultant Stokes images. A number of wavebands spanning from 600 to 850 nm are considered to determine the dependence of polarization on the wavelength of light both emitted and reflected from various scene topologies. The retardance measurements are made using a rotating quarter- waveplate as opposed to using liquid crystal technology and benefits and drawbacks are discussed for this type of device. Extensive calibration of the instrument is performed to ensure the accuracy of the retardance measurements. This paper will discuss calibration methods, general operation, and results characterizing the polarization properties of numerous targets.

Image processing methods to compensate for IFOV errors in microgrid imaging polarimeters

Long-wave infrared imaging Stokes vector polarimeters are used in many remote sensing applications. Imaging polarimeters require that several measurements be made under optically different conditions in order to estimate the polarization signature at a given scene point. This multiple-measurement requirement introduces error in the signature estimates, and the errors differ depending upon the type of measurement scheme used. Here, we investigate a LWIR linear microgrid polarimeter. This type of instrument consists of a mosaic of micropolarizers at different orientations that are masked directly onto a focal plane array sensor. In this scheme, each polarization measurement is acquired spatially and hence each is made at a different point in the scene. This is a significant source of error, as it violates the requirement that each polarization measurement have the same instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV). In this paper, we first study the amount of error introduced by the IFOV handicap in microgrid instruments. We then proceed to investigate means for mitigating the effects of these errors to improve the quality of polarimetric imagery. In particular, we examine different interpolation schemes and gauge their performance. These studies are completed through the use of both real instrumental and modeled data.

Two Long-Wave Infrared Spectral Polarimeters for Use in Understanding Polarization Phenomenology

Abstract : Abstract. Spectrally varying long-wave infrared (LWIR) polarization measurements can be used to identify materials and to discriminate samples from a cluttered background. Two LWIR instruments have been built and fielded by the Air Force Research Laboratory: a multispectral LWIR imaging polarimeter (LIP) and a full-Stokes Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectral polarimeter (FSP), constructed for higher spectral resolution measurements of materials. These two instruments have been built to gain an understanding of the polarization signatures expected from different types of materials in a controlled laboratory and in varying field environments. We discuss the instruments, calibration methods, general operation, and measurements characterizing the emitted polarization properties of materials as a function of wavelength. The results show that we are able to make polarization measurements with a relative accuracy of 0.5% degree of polarization (DOP) between two different instruments that are calibrated with the same techniques, and that these measurements can improve the understanding of polarization phenomenology.

Evaluation and display of polarimetric image data using long-wave cooled microgrid focal plane arrays

Recent developments for Long Wave InfraRed (LWIR) imaging polarimeters include incorporating a microgrid polarizer array onto the focal plane array (FPA). Inherent advantages over typical polarimeters include packaging and instantaneous acquisition of thermal and polarimetric information. This allows for real time video of thermal and polarimetric products. The microgrid approach has inherent polarization measurement error due to the spatial sampling of a non-uniform scene, residual pixel to pixel variations in the gain corrected responsivity and in the noise equivalent input (NEI), and variations in the pixel to pixel micro-polarizer performance. The Degree of Linear Polarization (DoLP) is highly sensitive to these parameters and is consequently used as a metric to explore instrument sensitivities. Image processing and fusion techniques are used to take advantage of the inherent thermal and polarimetric sensing capability of this FPA, providing additional scene information in real time. Optimal operating conditions are employed to improve FPA uniformity and sensitivity. Data from two DRS Infrared Technologies, L.P. (DRS) microgrid polarizer HgCdTe FPAs are presented. One FPA resides in a liquid nitrogen (LN2) pour filled dewar with a 80°K nominal operating temperature. The other FPA resides in a cryogenic (cryo) dewar with a 60° K nominal operating temperature.

Multiple wavelength heterodyne array interferometry.

Multiple wavelength interferometry is combined with a heterodyne array sensing technique to provide an approach for measuring highly aberrated optical surfaces. Interferometric measurements created with long effective wavelengths are obtained by digitally combining complex exposures collected at different optical wavelengths. The heterodyne array sensing method is straightforward to implement and holds promise for rapid wavefront measurements with high spatial and phase resolution. Measurements of a tilted, flat surface are presented and analyzed.

Measurement of the radiometric and polarization characteristics of a microgrid polarizer infrared focal plane array

Remote sensing applications make use of the optical polarization characteristics of a scene to enhance target detection and discrimination. Imaging polarimeters typically utilize polarizing arrays located in front of a focal plane array as a means of extracting polarization information from the optical scene. Over the last few years, technology development efforts have resulted in FPAs that integrate the polarizer with the infrared focal plane array (FPA). This paper will report on the radiometric and polarization characterization of a micro-grid polarizer FPA from DRS Infrared Technologies, L.P. (DRS). These measurements were performed to evaluate the radiometric performance and the polarization characteristics of the FPA.