Mauri Nieminen

Pastures, calf production and carcass weights of reindeer calves in the Oraniemi co-operative, Finnish Lapland

The effects of climatic and density-dependent factors on calf production and carcass weights of reindeer calves were studied between the years 1965-87 in the Oraniemi co-operative, Finnish Lapland (67°50´N). The Oraniemi area is divided into five pasture regions, in which the annual home range of the reindeer varied from 300 to 600 km2. The more than trebled reindeer density over the period 1965-87 in Oraniemi had no detrimental effect on calf production (range 15-74 calves/100 females), nor on the mean carcass weight of the calves in 1974-87 (range 16.8-23.2 kg). The annual variations in calf% were explained best by snow conditions during the previous winter and spring and their effects on the nutritional status of the females. The carcass weights of the calves were greater following a warm, rainy May and lower following a warm, rainy June and July. The weather in spring affects the emergence of green vegetation, which is reflected in the condition of females and their milk production, while the weather in early and mid-supper probably affects the quantities of blood-sucking insects and their activity. Carcass weights upon slaughtering rose from September to the beginning of December but then fell quickly. The differences in reindeer densities between the five pasture regions was not reflected in the calf% over the period 1984-87, but the carcass weights of calves were lower following high densities in the pasture regions, especially in the winter pastures.

Occurrence of certain microfungi on reindeer pastures in northern Finland during winter 1996-97

Thick snow covering on warm and unfrozen soil in late autumn is believed to promote mould growth on the winter pastures of reindeer. Natural feed containing potential mycotoxins is suggested to affect the condition and health of the reindeer. During this kind of winter and spring 1996-97 we collected 30 samples from winter forage plants on three winter ranges in nothern Finland. We identified altogethet 12 different species or species groups of fungi in plant samples. Most microfungi were found when the soil temperatute under the snow in winter was above 0 °C and when the snow was just melted in spring. Abundant fungi wete Mortierella spp., Penicillium spp. and Trichoderma viride. Without exception T. viride was, the most abundant when the temperature under the snow was above 0 °C and the soil was unfrozen, and Penicillium spp. when temperature was below zero and the soil was frozen. Mortierella spp. was abundant in both circumstances. These three fungi or genera were also abundant in samples just after snow melting in spring. Reindeer seemed to avoid digging in the places where fungi were the most abundant. Several Penicillium species and T. viride are known to be able to produce mycotoxins. Many symptoms observed among reindeer grazing on natural pastures were quite similar to those caused by mycotoxins. Potential mycotoxins on reindeer pastures and their effects on teindeer, should be studied in mote detail.

The impact of large carnivores on the mortality of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) calves in Kainuu, southeastern reindeer-herding region of Finland

During 2006-2008 the survival of reindeer calves was studied in the reindeer-herding cooperative of Halla in Kainuu area where totally 546 calves were equipped with radio mortality collars mainly at the age of 1-3 days. The survival was monitored from the calving in May until winter round-ups in October to January. The rate, timing and causes of mortality of reindeer were assessed. In 2006-08 totally 177 radio-collared calves were found dead (mean mortality 32.4%) until mid-January. The results showed significant annual variation in calf mortality and predation. Independent of year the mortality of radio-collared calves was highest during the first two months after birth, and the total mortality was 30.7% at the end of October and reached 34.6% by mid-January. The sex of calves and pelt colour did not affect significantly survival of calves. Predation comprised 70.0% of total mortality. Predation by wolf, bear, lynx and wolverine comprised on average 38.4%, 20.3%, 9.0% and 2.3%, respectively. Birth weight of calves lost or killed by predators did not differ from surviving calves. However, birth weight of calves killed by brown bears was significantly lighter (mean 5.84 kg), whereas calves killed by Eurasian lynx was significantly heavier (mean 6.67 kg) than birth weight of calves that survived (mean 6.26 kg). Bears killed calves mainly in May to July, wolves in July to October and lynx in August to December. Of 209 radio-collared adult females, 17 were found dead (8.0%). These females had calved in May and they were killed mainly by wolves (52.0%) in August to October.

Bone marrow and kidney fat as indicators of condition in reindeer

Back-fat depth, kidney-fat index (KFI), fat and triglyceride contents in femur and metatarsal marrows were measured from 92 semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) in northern Finland during 1980-84. The age of the reindeer varied from 5 months to 10 years and marrow fat content was estimated by five different methods: standard ether extraction, oven-drying (Neiland, 1970), reagent-dry assay (Verme and Holland, 1973), compression method (Greer, 1968) and visual estimation (Cheatum, 1949). The kidney-fat index (Riney, 1955) was significantly related (r=0.892) to the percent marrow fat in femur and metatarsus. The oven-drying method gave high correlations with results obtained by ether extraction and reagent-dry methods. Oven-drying produced a lower mean dry-weight value than reagent-drying (1.31 ±0.36%). The amount of compression had a concave relationship with the ether-extractable fat content of femur and metatarsal marrows. The subjectiveness of the visual estimation technique limited its use. Femur marrow fat contents (dry-weight %) in reindeer which died from starvation varied between 2 - 8%. Metatarsal fat contents were slightly higher. Adult males had a mean triglyceride content of 46.8 |Jmol/g in August in the femur. Adult females had slightly lower values. The amount of triglycerides was significantly related to the ether-extractable fat content of the femur (r=0.914) and metatarsal (r=0.911).

Some estimated effects of the planned harnessing of the Ounasjoki river on reindeer husbandry

The harnessing of waterways for electrical power has caused permanent pasture losses and prevented the free movement of the reindeer herds in Finland. Many great changes occurred after construction of the two large artificial lakes of Lokka and Porttipahta (total 630 km2) in the Lappi reindeer herders association in the 1960s. The planned harnessing of the Ounasjoki river consists of 10 power plants and 2 big and 12 smaller artificial lakes (total 270 km2). The plan will have effects on the income of 1070 owners in 7 reindeer herders associations. The losses in reindeer husbandry estimated by three different methods were maximally 476, 2824 and 9900 reindeer (value of meat production 0.12 to 2.5 million FIM/year), 64 jobs and various herding buildings (value 3.9 million FIM). Two new reindeer farmes would become unusuable (0.5 million FIM) and in addition hay production from seasonally flooded fields (approx. 25 000 - 30 000 FIM/year) would be lost. The building of new forces in the reindeer herders association areas of Ounasjoki river would require 6.2 million FIM. Ounasjoen rakentamissuunnitelman mahdolliset vaikutukset porotalouteen. Abstract in Finnsish / Yhteenveto: Vesistojen valjastaminen sahkontuottoon on tuhonnut porolaitumia ja vaikcuttanut porojen vapaata liikkumista Suomessa. Tasta on hyvana esimerkkina Lokan ja Portipahdan tekoaltaiden (yhteensa 630 km2) rakentaminen Lapin paliskunnassa 1960-luvulta alkacn. Ounasjoen rakentamissuunnitelma kasittaa 10 voimalaitosta ja 2 isoa ja 12 picnempaa tekoallasta (yhteensa 270 km2). Rakennussuunnitelma vaikuttaa 1070 poronomistajan talouteen 7 cri paliskunnassa. Kolmella eri mcnetelmalla laskien jouduttaisiin enimmillaan vahentamaan 476, 2824 ja 9900 lukuporoa (lihantuotto 0,12-2,5 milj. mk/vuosi) seka menetettaisim 64 ymparivuotista tyopaikkaa ja kocttaisiin useita eri rakennevahinkoja (arvoltaan noin 3,9 milj. mk). Kaksi uutta porotilaa jaisi kayttokclvottomiksi (0,5 milj. mk) ja lisaksi tulvaniittyjen hcinatuotto (noin 25 000 — 30 000 mk/vuosi) menetettaisiin. Uusicn estcaitO|en rakentamiseen tarvittaisiin Ounasjoki-alucen paliskunnissa 6,2 milj. mk. Ounasjoki-projektets eventuella foljder pa renskotseln. Abstract in Swedish / Sammandrag: Vattendragens uttnytjande for production av el-kraft har forstord renbetesmarker och forsvarat renarnas mojlighet att rora sig fritt i Finland. Som exempel harav ma namnas byggnadsprojekten for Lokka och Porttipahta regleringsreservoarer (inalles 630 km2) fr.o.m. borjan av 1960-talet inom Lappi renbeteslag. Ounasjoki-projektet omfattar 10 kraftverk samt 2 stora och 12 mindre reservoarer (inalles 270 km2). Byggnadsprojektcts influensomrade skulle omfatta 1070 renagarens hushall inom 7 renbeteslag. Genom att anvanda tre olika rakncsatt kommer man till ett resultat, att man skulle bli tvungen att forminska maksimalt 476, 2824 och 9900 renar (ett kottproduction pa ca. 0.12-2.5 million FIM/ar) och skulle mista 64 aret rundt anvandbara arbetsplatser och dessutom bli lidande av flere olika slags damage (forstorda stangslen osv.) med ett varde pa ca. 3.9 million FIM. Tva rcncgendomar skulle bli f5rstorda (0.5 million FIM) och dessutom skulle man forlora flodangarnas hoskord (25 000 - 30 000 PTM/ar). Inom Ounasjoki-omradets renbeteslag skulle man behova 6.2 million FIM for upprattande av nya stangsel pa omradet.

Economical importance of Finnish reindeer industry

Within 15 years favourable weather conditions, antiparasite medication, supplementary feed, modern technology, calf slaughter and other factors all contributed to a vast increase in reindeer, and hence reindeer meat production, so much so that by the early 1990s the total number of reindeer was approaching 430 000, and reindeer meat production exceeded 4 million kg. Due to excess numbers of reindeer, stocks had to be culled. At the same time problems arose with the processing of reindeer meat. As a result, demand slumped and prices plummeted. In a few years the outlook for reindeer management changed drastically. Since then the profession has been marked by uncertainty and change. The number of reindeer is now below the permitted level. In the 1996/97 season, number of living reindeer in herds totalled over 202 000, slaughtered reindeer 80 000 (Fig. 1) and meat production about 2 million kg. Income from slaughtered animals amounted to FIM 58 million.

The inventory of reindeer winter pastures in Muotkatunturi co-operative with satellite imageries and colour infrared photographs

About two thirds of Finnish reindeer live year around in the forest area. In June 1988 the number of reindeer in Finland was about 364.000. The reindeer densities have increased sharply in the whole Finnish reindeer husbandry area (the whole land area is about 115.000 km 2) during the last ten years. At the same time the multipleuse of land has become more efficient. Thus, information about the amount and condition of reindeer pastures at the cooperative level is an essential prerequisite of sustained profitable reindeer herding in the long term. The aim of the present study is to develope new and easily respected methods to evaluate reindeer pastures and to compare the traditional inventory methods of pastures with the use of satellite imageries and colour infrared photographs. The final results of the study may be applied to the whole reindeer herding area in different vegetation zones. The participants of the study (founded in 1987) are Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research, Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing of the Helsinki University of Technology and Department of Remote Sensing of the Technical Research Centre of Finland. The study area was located mainly in Muotkatunturi co-operative and also in Muddusjarvi co-operative. It belongs both to the Forest and the Fell Lapland vegetation zones. The pine forest limit runs through the area. There is the mixed pine and birch forest zone between the coniferous and subalpine deciduous forest areas. The study area was selected in order to gain material on the major reindeer pasture types. Muotkatunturi co-operative is relatively wide area (2.382 km 2) for conducting both field work and data processing. One specific test site, window, was rectified from Landsat-5 T M image (193/D 860715) for the study. Different kinds of reindeer winter pastures, forest site types and forest stands are presented in the sample window (625 km 2) . Visual print of the satellite image (1:35.000) was made for the field work. The training areas (n = 75) were selected by using aerial photographs, satellite image and topographical maps 1:50.000. The prerequisites for the training areas were that they must represent the whole spectral variation of the image and all the variables effecting the spectra and the intensities must be concerned. Tree stand and undervegetation was inventoried by 20 quadrats on every training area. Quadrats (0.5 m 2 each) were located systematically along transects 20 meters apart from each others. The training areas were located precisely on topographic maps and satellite image and then on the digital data base of the Landsat frame. The spectral signature for each winter pasture types wil l be obtained by averaging reflectance values of pixels from training areas (under work). Field checking of the pasture types wil l allow further refinement and improvement of the classification. During the summer 1987 and 1988 altogether 75 training areas were inventoried in the sample window. The final interpretation of the satellite imagery wil l be completed in October 1989. The main lichen-heaths were mostly in barren sites (n = 19, mean coverage of reindeer lichen 7.9 %) and in dry sites (n = 22, mean 4.9 %) mainly in Scots pine forests. The most common reindeer lichens were Cladina stellaris (mean 15.1 %) and CI. mitis (mean 8.7 %) in barren sites. The bottom layer in dry sites was dominated by CI. rangiferina (mean 5.9 %). In different forest site types there were significant positive correlation between the mean coverage of l ichens and the mean height of the living part of lichens. Interpretation of the colour infrared photographs showed as the results of ground data that the lichen-heaths located mainly in Scots pine forests and in mixed pine and birch forests. With the aid of ground data the coverage of lichens were classified as follow: the mean coverage of lichen being above 6 %, 2 6 % and below 2 %. Different lichen species cannot be specified with interpretation of color infrared photographs.

Reindeer mortality in Finland during the years 1971-81

During the reindeer herding years 1975/76—1979/80 the percentage of calves in the autumn troughout the whole reindeer herding area was on average 61% (range 53—69%). The lowest calf percentages were found in the Salla (42%), Orajarvi (40%), Kallioluoma (48%) and Muonio (48%) reindeer association areas. The highest calf percentage were in the Kasivarsi (89%), Kiiminki (86%), Hammastunturi (84%) and Halla (75%) areas. According to statistics in the whole reindeer herding area a total of 115 382 reindeer were lost in the herding years 1971/72—1980/81. However, the increase during the same period was 166 899 so that the number of reindeer grew by 51 507. The number of reindeer (adults and calves) reduced in 14 and increased in 42 reindeer association areas. There were 48 severe losses (loss over 20%) and in average losses (loss percentage 15.6%, total loss 35.6%) the number of reindeer in the association decreased to 64.4% of the previous two years average figure. There were six losses where the number of reindeer decreased more than 50%. A total of 39 923 reindeer were lost and of those 23 501 were lost in 1973/74 alone. Highest losses were suffered by certain of the northern herding associations. In the years 1976—80, 12 147 reindeer died in traffic accidents and of those 10 049 (82.7%) were run over by cars and 2 108 (17.7%) by trains. On average over 100 reindeer died annually due to traffic in Kallioluoma, Orajarvi, Pudasjarvi and Palojarvi reindeer herding areas. The worst section of road was route No. 80 between Vikajarvi and Kemijarvi and of rail kilometer section 780—850 from Ii to Kemi. In winter most reindeer died in traffic in January—February and in summer i July. Predators killed a total of 7 5 72 reindeer throughout the whole reindeer herding area during 1976—81. Predator damage was mainly concentrated in the eastern reindeer herding association areas and predators killed on average 155 reindeer in the Kasivarsi (range 100—196), 123 reindeer in the Lapland (range 20—201) and 119 reindeer in the Sallivaara (range 31—208) herding areas. Wolves killed most reindeer (2 265 reindeer, 29.9%), second came bears (1 876 reindeer, 24.8%), wolverine (1 767 reindeer, 23.4%) and lynx (252 reindeer, 3.3%). Porokuolemat Suomessa vuosina 1971—81. Abstract in Finnish / Yhteenveto: Poronhoitovuosina 1975/76 - 1979/80 vasaprosentti oli syksylla koko poronhoitoalueella keskimaarin 61% (vaihtelu 53—69%). Alhaisimmat vasaprosentit tavattiin Sallan (42%), Orajarven (46%), Kallioluoman (48%) ja Muonion paliskunnissa (48%). Korkeimmat vasaprosentit olivat Karivarren (89%), Kiimingin (86%), Hammastunturin (84%) ja Hallan (75%) paliskunnissa. Poronhoitovuosina 1971/72 - 1980/81 menetettiin tilastojen mukaan koko poronhoitoalueella yhteensa 115 382poroa. Lisaysta oli kuitenkin samanaikaisesti 166 889 poroa, joten poromaara kasvoi 51 507 porolla. Poromaara (lukuporot ja vasat) vaheni 14 ja lisaantyi 42 paliskunnassa. Varsinaisia katoja (kato yli 20%) oli 48 ja keskimaaraisessa kadossa (katoprosentti 15.6%, koko kato 35.6%) paliskunnan poroluku laski 64.4%: iin kahden edellisen vuoden keskiarvosta. Katoja, joissa poroluku tipahti yli 50%, oli kuusi. Kadoissa menetettiin yhteensa 39 923 poroa, joista jo vuoden 1973/74 kadossa 23 501 poroa (58.9%). Eniten kadoista karsivat eraat pohjoiset paliskunnat. Vuosina 1976—80 kuoli liikenteessa yhteensa 12 147 poroa, joista auton alle jai 10 049 poroa (82.7%) ja junan alle 2 108 poroa (17.3%). Keskimaarin yli 100 poroa kuoli vuosittain liikenteessa Kallioluoman, Orajarven, Pudasjarven ja Palojarven paliskunnissa. Pahin maantieosuus oli kantatie n:o 80 valilla Vikajarvi-Kemijarvi, ja rautatieosuus valilla 780—850 ratakilometria Iista Kemiin. Eniten poroja kuoli liikenteessa talvella tammi-helmikuussa ja kesalla heinakuussa. Pedot tappoivat vuosina 1976—81 yhteensa 7572 poroa koko poronhoitoalueella. Petovahingot keskittyivat lahinna itarajan paliskuntiin, ja pedot tappoivat vuosittain keskimaarin 155 poroa Kasivarren (vaihtelu 100—196 poroa), 123 poroa Lapin (vaihtelu 20—201 poroa) ja 119 poroa Sallivaaran (vaihtelu 31—208 poroa) paliskunnissa. Eniten poroja tappoi susi (2265 poroa, 29.9%), seuraavaksi eniten karhu (1876 poroa, 24.8%), ahma (1176 poroa, 23.4%) ja ilves (252 poroa, 3.3%). Rendodeligheten i Finnland under aren 1971-81. Abstract in Swedish / Sammandrag: Under renskotselaren 1975/76 — 1979/80 var det procemuella antalet renkalvar 61% (variering 53—69%) inom hela renskotselomradet. De lagsta procentantalen for kalvar patraffades inom renbeteslagen i Salla (42%), Orajarvi (46%), Kallioluoma (49%) och Muonio (48%). Det hogsta procentantalet for kalvar patraffades inom renbeteslagen i Kasivarsi (89%), Kiiminki (86%), Hammastunturi (84%) och Halla (75%). Under renskotselaren 1971/72 — 1980/81 forlorades inom hela renskotselomradet enligt statistiken sammanlagt 115 382 renar. Under samma period forekom dock en okning av 166 889 renar. Antalet renar okade alltsa med 51 507. Antalet renar (inraknade renar och kalvar) minskade inom 14 renbeteslag och okade inom 42. Det forekom 48 verklig stora forluster (forlust mer an 20%) och vid en forlust av medelstorlek (forlustprocent 15.6, totalforlust 35.6%) sjonk antalet renar inom renbeteslaget till 64.4% fran medeltalet av de tva foregaende aren. Sammanlagt sex stora forluster intraffade varvid renarnas antal minskade med mer an 50%. Sammanlagt 39 923 renar forlorades varvid antalet dodade renar steg redan under aren 1973/74 till 23 501 (58.9%). Vissa nordliga renbeteslag drabbades hardast av dessa forluster. Under aren 1976—1980 dodades sammanlagt 12 147 av trafiken, av dessa 10 049 (82.7%) av bil och 2 108 (17.3%) av tag. Trafiken dodade i medeltal mer an 100 renar inom renbeteslagen i Kallioluoma, Orajarvi, Pudasjarvi och Palojarvi. Den farligaste strackan av landsvagen visade sig vara stamvag nr. 80 mellan Vikajarvi och Kemijarvi samt av jarnvagen 780—850 bankilometer fran Ijo till Kemijarvi. De fiesta trafikdodsfallen intraffade pa vintern under januari—februari och pa sommaren under juli manad. Inom hela renskotselomradet patraffades under aren 1976—1981 sammanlagt 7 572 renar som rivits till dods av rovdjur. Rovdjurskadorna koncentrerade sig huvidsakligen till renbeteslagen pa ostergransen. Salunda dodades av rovdjur i medeltal 155 renar inom renbeteslagen i Kasivarsi (variering 100—196 renar), 123 inom Lappi renbeteslagen (variering 20—201 renar). Mest dodades renar av varg (2 265 renar, 29.9%), sedan av bjorn (1876 renar, 24.8%), av jarv (1 767 renar, 23.4%) och av lodjur (252 renar, 3.3%).

Genetic polymorphism of adult reindeer coat colour in a herding cooperative in Finnish Lapland.

In a random sample of 188 adult reindeer belonging to a reindeer herding cooperative in Finnish Lapland, the following coat colour mutants were identified: Abf at the locus Agouti (A), kalppinokka (WNk) at the locus White Nose (WN) and white at the locus W (White). Coefficients of coat colour phenotypic polymorphism K were estimated, in order to quantify this genetic polymorphism. Estimations of K were 12.8% for the locus A (Agouti), 5.1% for the locus WN (White Nose), and 7.5% for the locus W (White). This polymorphism results probably from a change in fitness coefficient of genotypes carrying colour mutants following domestication in a random mating context which has not yet been proved.

11th Arctic Ungulate Conference (AUC)

The 11th Arctic Ungulate Conference (AUC) wasorganised by the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute (RKTL) in Saariselka, in the Heart of Lapland, Finland, 24-28 August 2003. The conference continued a series of ten conferences devoted to Arctic Ungulates, including five Reindeer/Caribou Symposia, two Muskox Symposia and three Arctic Ungulate Conferences. The series began with the 1st International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium held in Fairbanks, Alaska, in 1972