Max R. McGillen

Structure-activity relationship (SAR) for the gas-phase ozonolysis of aliphatic alkenes and dialkenes.

The configuration of alkyl substituents about carbon-carbon unsaturated bonds exerts a controlling influence on the rate of the ozonolysis reaction. Alkyl substituents can increase (via the inductive effect) and decrease (via the steric effect) the activity of unsaturated bonds, and an accurate description of this information ought to correlate with the ozonolysis rate coefficient. A strong linear relationship is observed (R2 = 0.94), providing the basis of our SAR method. SAR estimates were tested against literature measurements of ozonolysis rate coefficients for 48 aliphatic alkenes and dialkenes, and were found to be accurate to within a factor of 2.3 of the measured value for the entire dataset. This represents a significant improvement over methods reported in the literature, where quoted predictions are at best accurate to within a factor of 6.5. Rates of gas-phase ozonolysis of alkenes and dialkenes can now be predicted with unprecedented accuracy using a simple SAR. The SAR was then validated against new experimental data. Absolute rate coefficients for the gas-phase reaction of ozone with a series of alkenes were determined in a simulation chamber at 295 +/- 2 K and atmospheric pressure by monitoring the loss of ozone in the presence of excess alkene. The rate coefficients (in units of 1 x 10(-18) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1)) are: 5.12 +/- 0.93 for 1-pentene, 2,3-dimethyl; 406 +/- 49 for 2-pentene, 2-methyl; 151 +/- 5 for (E)-2-hexene, 14.5 +/- 1.0 for 1,5-hexadiene and 20.7 +/- 3.1 for 1,5-hexadiene, 2-methyl. There is good agreement between the experimental and predicted values and the adjustable parameters of the SAR are shown to be insensitive to the inclusion of the new data. The use of the SAR in atmospheric chemical modelling is investigated. Ozonolysis and OH radical rate coefficients are estimated for each alkene and dialkene present in the MCM v3.1. The effects of error within predicted rate coefficients upon modelled concentrations of a number of key species, including O3, OH, HO2, NO and NO2 were rather small and is not in itself a major cause of uncertainty in modelled concentrations.

Temperature-dependent ozonolysis kinetics of selected alkenes in the gas phase: an experimental and structure–activity relationship (SAR) study

The kinetics of the reactions of ozone with several alkenes have been measured at atmospheric pressure between 217 and 301 K using EXTRA (EXTreme RAnge chamber). This work represents the first kinetic determinations of the system and focuses on the temperature-dependence of alkene ozonolysis, which is an important tropospheric process impacting upon climate and human health, yet few studies have investigated these reactions as a function of temperature. Temperature-dependent rate coefficients have been established for 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene, 2,4,4-trimethyl-1-pentene and 4-methyl-1-pentene at 217-301 K and atmospheric pressure. The derived Arrhenius expressions are as follows: k = (2.68+2.23-1.23) x 10-15 exp[-(16.29 +/- 1.20/RT)], k = (7.31+9.39-4.05) x 10-15 exp[-(15.33 +/- 1.84/RT)] and k = (5.21+2.85-1.85) x 10-15 exp[-(15.66 +/- 0.87/RT)] cm3 molecule-1 s-1 for 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene, 2,4,4-trimethyl-1-pentene and 4-methyl-1-pentene, respectively.A strong linear correlation has been observed between a simple structure-activity relationship (SAR) and the activation energy, Ea, possessing an R2 value of 0.90. However, no significant correlation was observed for the A-factor. Notwithstanding, with accurate predictions of the SAR for Ea and log k298, values for the A-factor can be retrieved, and hence the prediction of k at any temperature. The newly acquired data agree well with the original SAR and suggest that the factors controlling the rate of ozonolysis reaction are captured accurately by the SAR index.

Gas-Phase Rate Coefficients for the OH + n-, i-, s-, and t-Butanol Reactions Measured Between 220 and 380 K: Non-Arrhenius Behavior and Site-Specific Reactivity

Butanol (C4H9OH) is a potential biofuel alternative in fossil fuel gasoline and diesel formulations. The usage of butanol would necessarily lead to direct emissions into the atmosphere; thus, an understanding of its atmospheric processing and environmental impact is desired. Reaction with the OH radical is expected to be the predominant atmospheric removal process for the four aliphatic isomers of butanol. In this work, rate coefficients, k, for the gas-phase reaction of the n-, i-, s-, and t-butanol isomers with the OH radical were measured under pseudo-first-order conditions in OH using pulsed laser photolysis to produce OH radicals and laser induced fluorescence to monitor its temporal profile. Rate coefficients were measured over the temperature range 221-381 K at total pressures between 50 and 200 Torr (He). The reactions exhibited non-Arrhenius behavior over this temperature range and no dependence on total pressure with k(296 K) values of (9.68 ± 0.75), (9.72 ± 0.72), (8.88 ± 0.69), and (1.04 ± 0.08) (in units of 10(-12) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1)) for n-, i-, s-, and t-butanol, respectively. The quoted uncertainties are at the 2σ level and include estimated systematic errors. The observed non-Arrhenius behavior is interpreted here to result from a competition between the available H-atom abstraction reactive sites, which have different activation energies and pre-exponential factors. The present results are compared with results from previous kinetic studies, structure-activity relationships (SARs), and theoretical calculations and the discrepancies are discussed. Results from this work were combined with available high temperature (1200-1800 K) rate coefficient data and room temperature reaction end-product yields, where available, to derive a self-consistent site-specific set of reaction rate coefficients of the form AT(n) exp(-E/RT) for use in atmospheric and combustion chemistry modeling.

The role of ortho, meta, para isomerism in measured solid state and derived sub-cooled liquid vapour pressures of substituted benzoic acids

Knudsen Effusion Mass Spectrometry (KEMS) has been used to measure solid state equilibrium vapour pressures of several multifunctional aromatic compounds; phthalic, isophthalic, terephthalic, para-anisic, ortho-amino benzoic, meta-amino benzoic, para-amino benzoic, vanillic, syringic, 1,2,4-tricarboxylic benzoic, 3,5-dihydroxy-4-methyl benzoic and 4-methyl phthalic acids and nitrocatechol. Sub-cooled liquid vapour pressures were derived using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measured thermochemical properties for the compounds measured here, as well as for other substituted benzoic acids using literature values. Unusual trends in the sub-cooled liquid vapour pressure, not represented by currently available vapour pressure estimation methods, are explained using a newly constructed Structure–Activity Relationship (SAR) with a combination of resonance and steric effects. This was then tested against further measurements of ortho-dimethyl amino benzoic and meta-dimethyl amino benzoic acids.

Determination of gas-phase ozonolysis rate coefficients of a number of sesquiterpenes at elevated temperatures using the relative rate method

The rates of ozonolysis of four sesquiterpenes, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, isolongifolene and α-cedrene, are determined in the gas phase at an elevated temperature of 366 ± 3 K and a pressure of ~780 Torr using the EXTreme RAnge chamber (EXTRA). The experimentally obtained rate coefficients agree with extrapolated room temperature rate coefficients for isolongifolene and α-cedrene but not for β-caryophyllene and α-humulene, which were found to be three orders of magnitude slower than this in the literature. These new measurements support the hypothesis that operating under ambient conditions, kinetic measurements of condensable species can be influenced adversely by heterogeneous processes and should therefore be treated with caution.

1,2-Dichlorohexafluoro-Cyclobutane (1,2-c-C4F6Cl2, R-316c) a Potent Ozone Depleting Substance and Greenhouse Gas: Atmospheric Loss Processes, Lifetimes, and Ozone Depletion and Global Warming Potentials for the (E) and (Z) stereoisomers

The atmospheric processing of (E)- and (Z)-1,2-dichlorohexafluoro-cyclobutane (1,2-c-C4F6Cl2, R-316c) was examined in this work as the ozone depleting (ODP) and global warming (GWP) potentials of this proposed replacement compound are presently unknown. The predominant atmospheric loss processes and infrared absorption spectra of the R-316c isomers were measured to provide a basis to evaluate their atmospheric lifetimes and, thus, ODPs and GWPs. UV absorption spectra were measured between 184.95 to 230 nm at temperatures between 214 and 296 K and a parametrization for use in atmospheric modeling is presented. The Cl atom quantum yield in the 193 nm photolysis of R-316c was measured to be 1.90 ± 0.27. Hexafluorocyclobutene (c-C4F6) was determined to be a photolysis co-product with molar yields of 0.7 and 1.0 (±10%) for (E)- and (Z)-R-316c, respectively. The 296 K total rate coefficient for the O((1)D) + R-316c reaction, i.e., O((1)D) loss, was measured to be (1.56 ± 0.11) × 10(-10) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1) and the reactive rate coefficient, i.e., R-316c loss, was measured to be (1.36 ± 0.20) × 10(-10) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1) corresponding to a ~88% reactive yield. Rate coefficient upper-limits for the OH and O3 reaction with R-316c were determined to be <2.3 × 10(-17) and <2.0 × 10(-22) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), respectively, at 296 K. The quoted uncertainty limits are 2σ and include estimated systematic errors. Local and global annually averaged lifetimes for the (E)- and (Z)-R-316c isomers were calculated using a 2-D atmospheric model to be 74.6 ± 3 and 114.1 ± 10 years, respectively, where the estimated uncertainties are due solely to the uncertainty in the UV absorption spectra. Stratospheric photolysis is the predominant atmospheric loss process for both isomers with the O((1)D) reaction making a minor, ~2% for the (E) isomer and 7% for the (Z) isomer, contribution to the total atmospheric loss. Ozone depletion potentials for (E)- and (Z)-R-316c were calculated using the 2-D model to be 0.46 and 0.54, respectively. Infrared absorption spectra for (E)- and (Z)-R-316c were measured at 296 K and used to estimate their radiative efficiencies (REs) and GWPs; 100-year time-horizon GWPs of 4160 and 5400 were obtained for (E)- and (Z)-R-316c, respectively. Both isomers of R-316c are shown in this work to be long-lived ozone depleting substances and potent greenhouse gases.

Determination of gas-phase ozonolysis rate coefficients of C8–14 terminal alkenes at elevated temperatures using the relative rate method

The rates of ozonolysis of a suite of terminal alkenes ranging from C(8-14) are determined in the gas phase at an elevated temperature of 395.9 ± 1.2 K and a pressure of ∼650 Torr using the EXTreme RAnge chamber (EXTRA). Rates are found to be invariant with carbon number, whilst literature measurements conducted under ambient conditions exhibited an increase in rate coefficient after 10 carbon atoms. These earlier findings appear to contradict the intuitive notion that the inductive effect is a short-range process operating over a maximum distance of a few carbon atoms. These new measurements support the hypothesis that operating under ambient conditions, kinetic measurements of condensable species can be influenced adversely by heterogeneous processes and should therefore be treated with caution.

Temperature‐Dependence of the Rates of Reaction of Trifluoroacetic Acid with Criegee Intermediates

Abstract The rate coefficients for gas‐phase reaction of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) with two Criegee intermediates, formaldehyde oxide and acetone oxide, decrease with increasing temperature in the range 240–340 K. The rate coefficients k(CH2OO + CF3COOH)=(3.4±0.3)×10−10 cm3 s−1 and k((CH3)2COO + CF3COOH)=(6.1±0.2)×10−10 cm3 s−1 at 294 K exceed estimates for collision‐limited values, suggesting rate enhancement by capture mechanisms because of the large permanent dipole moments of the two reactants. The observed temperature dependence is attributed to competitive stabilization of a pre‐reactive complex. Fits to a model incorporating this complex formation give k [cm3 s−1]=(3.8±2.6)×10−18 T2 exp((1620±180)/T) + 2.5×10−10 and k [cm3 s−1]=(4.9±4.1)×10−18 T2 exp((1620±230)/T) + 5.2×10−10 for the CH2OO + CF3COOH and (CH3)2COO + CF3COOH reactions, respectively. The consequences are explored for removal of TFA from the atmosphere by reaction with biogenic Criegee intermediates.

HCFC‐133a (CF3CH2Cl): OH rate coefficient, UV and infrared absorption spectra, and atmospheric implications

HCFC-133a (CF3CH2Cl), an ozone-depleting substance, is primarily removed from the atmosphere by gas-phase reaction with OH radicals and by UV photolysis. The rate coefficient, k, for the OH + HCFC-133a reaction was measured between 233 and 379 K and is given by k(T) = (9.32 ± 0.8) × 10−13 exp(−(1296 ± 28)/T), where k(296 K) was measured to be (1.10 ± 0.02) × 10−14 (cm3 molecule−1 s−1) (2σ precision uncertainty). The HCFC-133a UV absorption spectrum was measured between 184.95 and 240 nm at 213–323 K, and a spectrum parameterization is presented. The HCFC-133a atmospheric loss processes, lifetime, ozone depletion potential, and uncertainties were evaluated using a 2-D atmospheric model. The global annually averaged steady state lifetime and ozone depletion potential (ODP) were determined to be 4.45 (4.04–4.90) years and 0.017 (±0.001), respectively, where the ranges are based solely on the 2σ uncertainty in the kinetic and photochemical parameters. The infrared absorption spectrum of HCFC-133a was measured, and its global warming potential was determined to be 380 on the 100 year time horizon.

An atmospheric photochemical source of the persistent greenhouse gas CF4

A previously uncharacterized atmospheric source of the persistent greenhouse gas tetrafluoromethane, CF4, has been identified in the UV photolysis of trifluoroacetyl fluoride, CF3C(O)F, which is a degradation product of several halocarbons currently present in the atmosphere. CF4 quantum yields in the photolysis of CF3C(O)F were measured at 193, 214, 228, and 248 nm, wavelengths relevant to stratospheric photolysis, to be (75.3 ± 1) × 10−4, (23.7 ± 0.4) × 10−4, (6.6 ± 0.2) × 10−4, and ≤0.4 × 10−4, respectively. A 2-D atmospheric model was used to estimate the contribution of the photochemical source to the global CF4 budget. The atmospheric photochemical production of CF4 from CF3CH2F (HFC-134a), CF3CHFCl (HCFC-124), and CF3CCl2F (CFC-114a) per molecule emitted was calculated to be (1–2.5) × 10−5, 1.0 × 10−4, and 2.8 × 10−3, respectively. Although CF4 photochemical production was found to be relatively minor at the present time, the identified mechanism demonstrates that long-lived products with potential climate impacts can be formed from the atmospheric breakdown of shorter-lived source gases.