May A. Massoud

Decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management: applicability in developing countries.

Providing reliable and affordable wastewater treatment in rural areas is a challenge in many parts of the world, particularly in developing countries. The problems and limitations of the centralized approaches for wastewater treatment are progressively surfacing. Centralized wastewater collection and treatment systems are costly to build and operate, especially in areas with low population densities and dispersed households. Developing countries lack both the funding to construct centralized facilities and the technical expertise to manage and operate them. Alternatively, the decentralized approach for wastewater treatment which employs a combination of onsite and/or cluster systems is gaining more attention. Such an approach allows for flexibility in management, and simple as well as complex technologies are available. The decentralized system is not only a long-term solution for small communities but is more reliable and cost effective. This paper presents a review of the various decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and management. A discussion as to their applicability in developing countries, primarily in rural areas, and challenges faced is emphasized all through the paper. While there are many impediments and challenges towards wastewater management in developing countries, these can be overcome by suitable planning and policy implementation. Understanding the receiving environment is crucial for technology selection and should be accomplished by conducting a comprehensive site evaluation process. Centralized management of the decentralized wastewater treatment systems is essential to ensure they are inspected and maintained regularly. Management strategies should be site specific accounting for social, cultural, environmental and economic conditions in the target area.

Methane emissions from wastewater management.

Greenhouse gas emissions in the form of methane and carbon dioxide are produced when municipal and industrial wastewater and their residual solid by-product (sludge) are handled under or subject to anaerobic conditions, thus contributing to the global warming potential or the greenhouse effect. This paper presents estimation methods used for determining methane emissions from the management of wastewater. Applications for estimating countrywide methane gas emissions from wastewater management are presented with the country of Lebanon as an example. The relative significance of these emissions is assessed in comparison with methane emissions from developing and developed countries. Uncertainty associated with the estimation process and mitigation measures to reduce potential impacts of methane emissions from wastewater management are also discussed.

Particulate matter in urban areas: health-based economic assessment

The interest in the association between human health and air pollution has grown substantially in recent years. Based on epidemiological studies in several countries, there is conclusive evidence of a link between particulate air pollution and adverse health effects. Considering that particulate matter may be the most serious pollutant in urban areas and that pollution-related illness results in financial and non-financial welfare losses, the main objective of this study is to assess the economic benefits of reducing particulate air pollution in Lebanese urban areas. Accordingly, the extent and value of health benefits due to decreasing levels of particulate in the air are predicted. Health impacts are expressed in both physical and monetary terms for saved statistical lives, and productivity due to different types of morbidity endpoints. Finally, the study concludes with a range of policy options available to mitigate particulate air pollution in urban areas.

Assessment of public vs private MSW management: a case study

Public-private partnerships in urban environmental services have witnessed increased interest in recent years primarily to reform the weak performance of the public sector, reduce cost, improve efficiency, and ensure environmental protection. In this context, successful public-private partnerships require a thorough analysis of opportunities, a deliberate attention to process details, and a continuous examination of services to determine whether they are more effectively performed by the private sector. A comparative assessment of municipal solid waste collection services in the two largest cities in Lebanon where until recently municipal solid waste collection is private in one and public in the other is conducted. While quality of municipal solid waste collection improved, due to private sector participation, the corresponding cost did not, due to monopoly and an inadequate organizational plan defining a proper division of responsibilities between the private and the public sector.

Environmental management system (ISO 14001) certification in developing countries: Challenges and implementation strategies

The cost associated with ISO 14001 certification has developing countries companies’ lag in environmental management.

Qualitative assessment of the effectiveness of the Mediterranean action plan: wastewater management in the Mediterranean region

Land-based pollutants, primarily arising from sewage disposal, constitute the greatest threat to the Mediterranean marine environment and to public health. The adoption of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) (1975), Barcelona Convention (1976) and its related protocols was the first response of the Mediterranean coastal states to this problem. At present most of the Mediterranean countries dispose of their wastewater directly into the Mediterranean sometimes treated, though more often than not untreated. Due to freshwater shortages an increasing number of Mediterranean countries are reusing wastewater for irrigation. As the system currently operates, it is apparent that action proposed regarding land-based pollutants has not achieved the objectives outlined in the Barcelona Convention, bringing into question the effectiveness of the implementation process of the land-based sources (LBS) protocol. Accordingly, the main objective of this analysis is to assess the effectiveness of the MAP, in particular the LBS protocol in the context of wastewater management in the Mediterranean countries. A brief description of the MAP and its legal, scientific, and socio-economic components is presented. The current state of wastewater management in the Mediterranean countries is described in relation to wastewater reuse in agriculture and its implications. The effectiveness of the MAP to combat pollution from wastewater mismanagement is examined with recommendations and measures to address the problem.

Assessment of community noise problem in Greater Beirut Area, Lebanon.

Over the last two decades, urban noise has been increasingrapidly, primarily in urban areas, due to population growthand the increase of certain noise sources. The main objectiveof this paper is to assess the sources and possible impactsof the community noise problems in Lebanese urban areas,particularly the Greater Beirut Area. The causes and effectsof community noise pollution are briefly presented. Soundpressure levels that were measured to define existing noiseexposure levels in various locations in the Greater BeirutArea are also presented. The attitudes toward noise pollutionand perceived annoyance impact on a sample of 1,038 exposedresidents are described. The association between measurednoise levels and sources, as well as annoyance, is examinedusing correlation analysis and linear and multiple linearregressions. A set of recommendations is presented to reducecommunity noise problem in Greater Beirut Area.

Emissions from Landfills: A Methodology Comparative Assessment

Climate change from greenhouse gas emissions has been at the forefront of current research in the past decade. Anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, over the past 100 years led to a considerable increase in the concentration of these gases in the atmosphere. Methane emissions, of which municipal solid waste landfilling is one of its major anthropogenic sources, make a significant contribution to the greenhouse effect. This paper considers the influence of municipal solid waste management, particularly landfilling on climate change, presents a brief review of methane formation mechanisms in municipal solid waste landfills, describes estimation methods used in determining methane emissions, and compares results and associated uncertainties that are typically obtained with each method. Applications for estimating country-wide (with the country of Lebanon as an example) methane gas emissions from solid waste are presented using the approach adopted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The relative significance of these emissions is assessed in comparison with methane emissions from developing and developed countries. Mitigation measures to reduce the potential impacts of methane emissions taking into consideration country specific economic and technological conditions are also discussed.

Effectiveness of wastewater management in rural areas of developing countries: a case of Al-Chouf Caza in Lebanon

Alike many developing countries, Lebanon lacks a national wastewater management strategy that can effectively protect public health and environmental quality. This has led the local communities and municipalities to plan and implement their own arrangements for wastewater treatment systems. However, most municipalities still lack the human and financial resources, management capabilities, and environmental awareness necessary to implement wastewater management in an environmentally sound manner. As such, the effectiveness of these systems, particularly with regard to the quality of the treated effluent, warrants evaluation. Accordingly, a performance evaluation of the treatment/disposal systems, taking three villages in Al-Chouf Caza in Lebanon as a case study, was carried out. The conducted field work, visual assessment, and laboratory analyses of effluent discharges revealed that the existing systems for wastewater treatment in the three villages are either not properly functioning or operational but ineffective and, consequently, hardly achieve any treatment higher than primary. Although developing countries are being encouraged to implement wastewater treatment systems with the promise of financial aid from developed nations, it is important that local conditions are considered carefully to make full use of any aid. It is very crucial to take into account the economic status of the community and the municipality in question. There is no point in adopting the most advanced technology for wastewater treatment if there is no mechanism to ensure maximum efficiency.

The role of the water tankers market in water stressed semi-arid urban areas:Implications on water quality and economic burden

Population growth and development are associated with increased water demand that often exceeds the capacity of existing resources, resulting in water shortages, particularly in urban areas, where more than 60% of the worlds population resides. In many developing communities, shortages often force households to depend on water tankers amongst other potential sources for the delivery of water for domestic and/or potable use. While water tankers have become an integral part of the water supply system in many countries, the sector is often unregulated and operates with little governmental supervision. Users are invariably unaware of the origin or the quality of purchased water. In an effort to better assess this sector, a field survey of water vending wells and tankers coupled with a water quality sampling and analysis program was implemented in a pilot semi-arid urban area (Beirut, Lebanon) to shed light on the environmental and socio-economic impacts of the water tanker sector. Total dissolved solids (TDS), chloride (Cl-), and microbial loads exceeded drinking water quality standards. While TDS and Cl- levels were mostly due to saltwater intrusion in coastal wells, tankers were found to be a significant source of total coliforms. Delivered water costs varied depending on the tanker size, the quality of the distributed water, and pre-treatment used, with a markup of nearly 8-24 folds of the public water supply and an equivalent economic burden of 16% of the average household income excluding environmental externalities of water quality. The study concludes with a management framework towards consumer protection under integrated supply and demand side measures.