Mechteld R. M. Visser

Predicting and preventing physician burnout: results from the United States and the Netherlands.

Burnout is a long-term stress reaction seen primarily in the human service professions. It is a “psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment” (1). Over the past 20 years, many aspects of medical practice have changed: autonomy is declining, the status of physicians has diminished, and work pressures are increasing. Burnout is an unintended and adverse result of such changes. Burnout has been described among physicians in several countries and practice settings; in the Netherlands, physician disability insurance premiums have recently risen 20% to 30% owing to an increasing incidence of burnout and stress-related complaints (2). Paraphrasing Maslach, Wilters (3) describes burned out physicians as being angry, irritable, and impatient; “there is also an increase in absenteeism and job turnover. Decreasing productivity and practice revenue are byproducts of physician turnover.” Thus burnout can be associated with a deterioration in the physician-patient relationship and a decrease in both the quantity and quality of care. In a recent survey of health maintenance organization (HMO) physicians (4), burned out physicians were less satisfied, more likely to want to reduce their time seeing patients, more likely to order tests or procedures, and more interested in early retirement than other physicians. To better understand the interplay of the predictors of physician burnout and to develop strategies for prevention, we compared data from two large physician surveys, one in the United States (the Physician Worklife Study) and another in the Netherlands (the Dutch Study of Motivation among Medical Consultants). These data were used to construct and test a predictive model of physician burnout.

Fatigue and radiotherapy: (A) experience in patients undergoing treatment.

Cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy frequently report fatigue. However, knowledge of the importance of fatigue for these patients and of the factors associated with their fatigue is limited. The aim of the current investigation was to gain more insight into fatigue as related to radiotherapy by answering the following questions. First, how is the experience of fatigue best described? Secondly, to what extent is fatigue related to sociodemographic, medical (including treatment), physical and psychological factors? Finally, is it possible to predict which patients will suffer from fatigue after completion of radiotherapy? Patients with different types of cancer receiving radiotherapy with curative intent (n = 250) were interviewed before and within 2 weeks of completion of radiotherapy. During treatment, patients rated their fatigue at 2-weekly intervals. Results indicate a gradual increase in fatigue over the period of radiotherapy and a decrease after completion of treatment. Fatigue scores obtained after radiotherapy were only slightly, although significantly, higher than pretreatment scores. After treatment, 46% of the patients reported fatigue among the three symptoms that caused them most distress. Significant associations were found between post-treatment fatigue and diagnosis, physical distress, functional disability, quality of sleep, psychological distress and depression. No association was found between fatigue and treatment or personality characteristics. Multivariate regression analysis demonstrated that the intensity of pretreatment fatigue was the best predictor of fatigue after treatment. In view of this finding, a regression analysis was performed to gain more insight into the variables predicting pretreatment fatigue. The degree of functional disability and impaired quality of sleep were found to explain 38% of the variance in fatigue before starting radiotherapy. Fatigue in disease-free patients 9 months after treatment is described in paper (B) in this issue.

The need for a prophylactic gastrojejunostomy for unresectable periampullary cancer - A prospective randomized multicenter trial with special focus on assessment of quality of life

Objective: To evaluate the effect of a prophylactic gastrojejunostomy on the development of gastric outlet obstruction and quality of life in patients with unresectable periampullary cancer found during explorative laparotomy. Summary Background Data: Several studies, including one randomized trial, propagate to perform a prophylactic gastrojejunostomy routinely in patients with periampullary cancer found to be unresectable during laparotomy. Others suggest an increase of postoperative complications. Controversy still exists in general surgical practice if a double bypass should be performed routinely in these patients. Methods: Between December 1998 and March 2002, patients with a periampullary carcinoma who were found to be unresectable during exploration were randomized to receive a double bypass (hepaticojejunostomy and a retrocolic gastrojejunostomy) or a single bypass (hepaticojejunostomy). Randomization was stratified for center and presence of metastases. Patients with gastrointestinal obstruction and patients treated endoscopically for more than 3 months were excluded. Primary endpoints were development of clinical gastric outlet obstruction and surgical intervention for gastric outlet obstruction. Secondary endpoints were mortality, morbidity, hospital stay, survival, and quality of life, measured prospectively by the EORTC-C30 and Pan26 questionnaires. It was decided to perform an interim analysis after inclusion of 50% of the patients (n = 70). Results: Five of the 70 patients randomized were lost to follow-up. From the remaining 65 patients, 36 patients underwent a double and 29 a single bypass. There were no differences in patient demographics, preoperative symptoms, and surgical findings between the groups. Clinical symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction were found in 2 of the 36 patients (5.5%) with a double bypass, and in 12 of the 29 patients (41.4%) with a single bypass (P = 0.001). In the double bypass group, one patient (2.8%) and in the single bypass group 6 patients (20.7%) required (re-)gastrojejunostomy during follow-up (P = 0.04). The absolute risk reduction for reoperation in the double bypass group was 18%, and the numbers needed to treat was 6. Postoperative morbidity rates, including delayed gastric emptying, were 31% in the double versus 28% in the single bypass group (P = 0.12). Median postoperative length of stay was 11 days (range 4–76 days) in the double versus 9 days (range 6–20 days) in the single bypass group (P = 0.06); median survival was 7.2 months in the double versus 8.4 months in the single bypass group (P = 0.15). No differences were found in the quality of life between both groups. After surgery most quality of life scores deteriorated temporarily and were restored to their baseline score (t = −1) within 4 months. Conclusions: Prophylactic gastrojejunostomy significantly decreases the incidence of gastric outlet obstruction without increasing complication rates. There were no differences in quality of life between the two groups. Together with the previous randomized trial from the Hopkins group, this study provides sufficient evidence to state that a double bypass consisting of a hepaticojejunostomy and a prophylactic gastrojejunostomy is preferable to a single bypass consisting of only a hepaticojejunostomy in patients undergoing surgical palliation for unresectable periampullary carcinoma. Therefore, the trial was stopped earlier than planned.

Methods to detect response shift in quality of life data: a convergent validity study

When measuring changes in quality of life (QL) with a pretest-posttest design, response shift can affect results. We investigated the convergent validity of three approaches to detect response shift. (1) In the thentest approach, response shift is measured using a retrospective judgment of pretest QL-levels (thentest). (2) In the anchor–recalibration approach response shift is measured, assessing shifts in patients’ individual definitions of the scale-anchors (worst and best imaginable QL) over time. (3) In the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) approach response shift is indicated by mathematically defined changes in factor solutions and variance–covariance matrices over time. Prior to and three months after invasive surgery, 170 cancer patients completed the SF-36, the Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory (as pre-, post-, and thentest), and the anchor–recalibration task (as pre-, and posttest). Results showed agreement between the thentest and SEM approach on the absence (6 scales) and presence (2 scales) of response shift in 8 of the 9 scales. For the ninth scale both methods detected response shift, but in opposite directions. Possible explanations for this discrepancy are discussed. The anchor–recalibration task agreed with the other approaches on only the absence of response shift in 4 of the 7 scales. The convergent results of thentest and SEM support their validity, especially because they use statistically independent operationalizations of response shift. In this study, recall bias did not invalidate thentest results.

An application of structural equation modeling to detect response shifts and true change in quality of life data from cancer patients undergoing invasive surgery

The objective is to show how structural equation modeling can be used to detect reconceptualization, reprioritization, and recalibration response shifts in quality of life data from cancer patients undergoing invasive surgery. A consecutive series of 170 newly diagnosed cancer patients, heterogeneous to cancer site, were included. Patients were administered the SF-36 and a short version of the multidimensional fatigue inventory prior to surgery, and 3 months following surgery. Indications of response shift effects were found for five SF-36 scales: reconceptualization of ‘general health’, reprioritization of ‘social functioning’, and recalibration of ‘role-physical’, ‘bodily pain’, and ‘vitality’. Accounting for these response shifts, we found deteriorated physical health, deteriorated general fitness, and improved mental health. The sizes of the response shift effects on observed change were only small. Yet, accounting for the recalibration response shifts did change the estimate of true change in physical health from medium to large. The structural equation modeling approach was found to be useful in detecting response shift effects. The extent to which the procedure is guided by subjective decisions is discussed.

THE ROTER INTERACTION ANALYSIS SYSTEM (RIAS) IN ONCOLOGICAL CONSULTATIONS: PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES

One of the most frequently used systems to analyse doctor–patient communication is the Roter Interaction Analysis System (RIAS). However, it has mostly been applied and evaluated in primary care settings. Two studies are presented in which the psychometric properties of the RIAS are investigated in an oncological setting.

Cancer patients’ coping styles and doctor–patient communication

Monitoring and blunting styles have become relevant concepts regarding their potential impact on patients’ and doctors’ behaviors. The present study aimed at investigating the relation between cancer patients’ coping styles and doctor–patient communication and global affect. Coping styles were assessed by means of the Threatening Medical Situations Inventory (TMSI). Since a shortened version of the TMSI was used, the validity of this instrument was also evaluated. First, it was examined whether the two factor structure of the original TMSI could be confirmed in our version. Then, the relation between coping style and patients’ preferences for information and participation in decision‐making was evaluated. Second, the relation between monitoring and blunting and patients’ age, sex, education, quality of life and prognosis was investigated. Finally, the relation between patients’ coping styles and communicative behaviors and global affect of both patients and physicians during the initial oncological consultation was examined.

How response shift may affect the measurement of change in fatigue

If patients experience extreme fatigue during treatment, they may judge the level of fatigue following this experience differently from how they would have judged it before. This change in internal standard is referred to as a response shift. We explored whether a response shift might have occurred in patients receiving radiotherapy (n = 199). Fatigue was assessed before and after radiotherapy. Following completion of the post-test, a thentest was administered where patients had to provide a renewed judgment of their pre-treatment level of fatigue. Response shift was assessed by the mean difference between the pre-test and thentest scores. Comparing the thentest with the pretest scores, patients retrospectively minimized their pre-treatment level of fatigue. The thentest-post-test difference was significant, whereas the conventional pretest-post-test difference was not. These results are in line with the occurrence of a response shift. Additional hypotheses regarding response shift were partially supported. It is concluded that the potentially large implications of response shift justify further research.

Formal definitions of measurement bias and explanation bias clarify measurement and conceptual perspectives on response shift

OBJECTIVE Response shift is generally associated with a change in the meaning of test scores, impeding the comparison of repeated measurements. Still, different researchers have different views of response shift. From a measurement perspective, response shift can be considered as bias in the measurement of change, whereas from a more conceptual perspective, it can be considered as bias in the explanation of change. We propose definitions to accommodate both interpretations of response shift. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING Formal definitions of measurement bias and explanation bias serve to define response shift in measurement and conceptual perspectives. Examples from the field of health-related quality of life research illustrate the definitions. RESULTS Definitions of response shifts as special cases of either measurement bias or explanation bias clarify different interpretations of response shift and lead to different research methods. Different structural equation models are suggested to investigate biases and response shifts in each of the two perspectives. CONCLUSION It is important to distinguish between measurement and conceptual perspectives as they involve different ideas about response shift. Definitions from both perspectives help to resolve conceptual and methodological confusion around response shift and to further its research.

Explaining change over time in quality of life of adult patients with anorectal malformations or Hirschsprung's disease

PurposeThe aim of this study was to examine changes in the quality of life of adult patients with anorectal malformations or Hirschsprungs disease over a three-year interval and to identify demographic, clinical, and psychosocial variables that explain possible quality-of-life changes. Understanding the factors that affect changes in quality of life over time is particularly important to provide adequate care.MethodsQuestionnaires were administered to 261 patients (77 percent), with a three-year interval. Background characteristics, including demographic and clinical variables, and psychosocial variables (i.e., self-esteem, mastery, social support, disease cognition) were measured on one occasion. Generic and disease-specific quality of life were measured twice.ResultsOn average patients indicated no change in quality-of-life level after three years. However, variance in the change scores revealed individual variation, indicating the presence of patients who improved and patients who deteriorated. Patients who were female, older, have other congenital diseases, or a stoma reported poorer quality of life over time. The psychosocial variable “disease cognition” most strongly affected the change in quality of life of patients with anorectal malformations or Hirschsprungs disease.ConclusionsOur results could alert clinicians to patients who are at risk for quality-of-life deterioration and might therefore be in need for extra care. Our findings illustrate the importance of psychosocial functioning for enhancing the quality of life over time of these patients.