Melissa Massey

Mind your P's and Q's: the coming of age of semiconducting polymer dots and semiconductor quantum dots in biological applications.

Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) and semiconducting polymer nanoparticles (Pdots) are brightly emissive materials that offer many advantages for bioanalysis and bioimaging, and are complementary to revolutionary advances in fluorescence technology. Within the context of biological applications, this review compares the evolution and different stages of development of these two types of nanoparticle, and addresses current perceptions about QDs. Although neither material is a wholesale replacement for fluorescent dyes, recent trends have demonstrated that both types of nanoparticle can excel in applications that are often too demanding for fluorescent dyes alone. Examples discussed in this review include single particle tracking and imaging, multicolor imaging and multiplexed detection, biosensing, point-of-care diagnostics, in vivo imaging and drug delivery.

Towards a fluorescent molecular switch for nucleic acid biosensing

A novel fluorescent molecular switch for the detection of nucleic acid hybridization has been explored in relation to the development of a structure that would be amenable for operation when immobilized for solid-phase analyses. The structure was prepared by self-assembly, and used Neutravidin as the central multivalent docking molecule, a newly synthesized biotinylated long-chain linker for intercalating dye that was modified with thiazole orange (TO) at one end, and a biotinylated probe oligonucleotide. Self-assembly of the biotinylated components on adjacent Neutravidin binding sites allowed for physical placement of an oligonucleotide probe molecule next to tethered TO. The TO located at the end of the flexible linker chain was available to intercalate, and could report if a duplex structure was formed by a probe–target interaction by means of fluorescence intensity. Subsequently, regeneration of the single-stranded probe was possible without loss of the intercalator to solution. The switch constructs were assembled in solution and subsequently immobilized onto biotin functionalized optical fibers to complete the sensor design. Solution-phase fluorescence lifetime data showed a biexponential behavior for switch constructs, suggesting intercalation as well as a significant secondary binding mode for the immobilized TO. It was found that the secondary binding mechanism for the dye to DNA could be decreased, thus shifting the dye to intercalative binding modes, by adjusting the solution conditions to a pH below the pI of Neutravidin, and by increasing the ionic strength of the buffer. Preliminary work demonstrated that it was possible to achieve up to a fivefold increase in fluorescence intensity on hybridization to the target.

Challenges in the Design of Optical DNA Biosensors

The field of biosensors and biochips for nucleic acid diagnostics has developed significantly over the last decade. High-throughput techniques offering the advantages of sensitivity and selectivity combined with rapid analysis to provide reproducible and accurate results are highly sought after in the areas of medical diagnostics, forensics, environmental monitoring, and bioterrorism. This chapter gives a short review of the necessary considerations for the preparation of immobilized nucleic acid films on a solid sensor substrate and the development of techniques utilized for the detection of selective hybridization of target binding materials. The fundamentals of fibre optic and surface plasmon resonance optical sensor platforms are outlined, followed by key developments in the area of fluorescent particle labels and dyes used for the detection of nucleic acid hybridization. Recent advances in hybridization assays include fluorescent cationic polymer, molecular beacon, and duplex probe technologies. Finally, current methods used for the detection of interfacial DNA hybridization are described, including a discussion of limitations and possible strategies to enhance the key design priorities of sensitivity and selectivity.

Chapter 2:Quantum Dots in the Analysis of Food Safety and Quality

The detection of chemical residues, toxins, pathogens and allergens contaminating food and water is of utmost importance to society. Although numerous strategies have been developed to detect, isolate and identify potential threats in food, there remains great demand for assays that enhance the speed, sensitivity and selectivity of detection in formats that are simple, portable and low cost. Quantum dots are brightly fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystals with many physical and optical properties that can help address the challenges associated with developing improved assays for food safety and quality. This chapter summarizes research toward the utilization of quantum dots in assays for the detection of analytes such as pathogens, pesticides, antibiotics and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). A short primer on the properties and bioconjugation of quantum dots is also included. Numerous studies have demonstrated the potential for quantum dots to enhance analytical figures of merit in food safety and quality assays; however, strategic research is needed to develop quantum dot-enabled assays that will have the greatest opportunity to impact food safety practices in industry and society.

Multifunctional Concentric FRET-Quantum Dot Probes for Tracking and Imaging of Proteolytic Activity

Proteolysis has many important roles in physiological regulation. It is involved in numerous cell signaling processes and the pathogenesis of many diseases, including cancers. Methods of visualizing and assaying proteolytic activity are therefore in demand. Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) probes offer several advantages in this respect. FRET supports end-point or real-time measurements, does not require washing or separation steps, and can be implemented in various assay or imaging formats. In this chapter, we describe methodology for preparing self-assembled concentric FRET (cFRET) probes for multiplexed tracking and imaging of proteolytic activity. The cFRET probe comprises a green-emitting semiconductor quantum dot (QD) conjugated with multiple copies of two different peptide substrates for two target proteases. The peptide substrates are labeled with different fluorescent dyes, Alexa Fluor 555 and Alexa Fluor 647, and FRET occurs between the QD and both dyes, as well as between the two dyes. This design enables a single QD probe to track the activity of two proteases simultaneously. Fundamental cFRET theory is presented, and procedures for using the cFRET probe for quantitative measurement of the activity of two model proteases are given, including calibration, fluorescence plate reader or microscope imaging assays, and data analysis. Sufficient detail is provided for other researchers to adapt this method to their specific requirements and proteolytic systems of interest.

A fluorescent molecular switch for room temperature operation based on oligonucleotide hybridization without labeling of probes or targets.

A molecular switch was prepared by self-assembly. Neutravidin served as a template that allowed for a biotinylated probe oligonucleotide to be placed adjacent to a biotinylated long-chain linker that was terminated with thiazole orange (TO). Hybridization of probe oligonucleotide with target to form double-stranded DNA resulted in intercalation of the adjacent TO probe. This was a reversible process that could be tracked by fluorescence intensity changes. Formamide was used as a denaturant for double-stranded DNA, and could be used to depress thermal denaturation temperatures. In this work formamide had a dual function, providing for control of hybridization selectivity at room temperature, while concurrently ameliorating non-specific adsorption to improve signal-to-noise when using thiazole orange as a fluorescence signalling agent to determine oligonucleotide hybridization. Room temperature single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) discrimination for oligonucleotide targets was achieved both in solution and for molecular switches that were immobilized onto optical fibers. In solution, a concentration of 18.5% formamide provided greater than 40-fold signal difference between single-stranded DNA and double-stranded DNA, in contrast to only a 2-fold difference in the absence of formamide. Selectivity for SNP determination in solution was demonstrated using targets of varying lengths including a 141-base PCR amplicon. The improved signal-to-noise achieved by use of formamide is likely due to preferential displacement of dye molecules that are otherwise electrostatically bound to the polyanionic nucleic acid backbone.

Evaluation of thiazole intercalating dyes as acceptors for quantum dot donors in Förster resonance energy transfer

Fluorescent probes suitable for the selective detection of DNA sequences are important in genomic research, disease diagnostics, and pathogen detection, among many other applications. The unique optical properties of semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) have proven to be highly valuable for development of fluorescent probes and biosensors. We describe preliminary work toward combining QDs with monomeric thiazole dyes for the detection of nucleic acid hybridization. BO, TO, BO3, and TO3 dyes, which span the visible spectrum, were synthesized with undecanoic acid linkers to permit bioconjugation and their fluorescent enhancements in response to DNA oligonucleotides was evaluated. Contrast ratios between single-stranded probe oligonucleotide and double-stranded probe/target hybrids were between 2.5 and 7.5. BO3 and TO3 were used to label a polyhistidine-appended peptide that self-assembled to QDs and were found to be suitable acceptor dyes for Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) with QD donors that had their peak emission at 540 nm and 625 nm, respectively. We further conjugated a probe oligonucleotide to a polyhistidineappended peptide at an internal site, and this probe also self-assembled to QDs. Mixing these conjugates with BO3 and either complementary DNA target or non-complementary DNA could induce quenching of the QD emission via FRET, but no FRET-sensitized BO3 emission was observed. Experiments suggested that binding of BO3 to the interface of the QDs was in competition with binding to DNA. Our results provide insight into important criteria (e.g., QD surface chemistry) for designing and optimizing a QD-FRET probe for DNA detection that utilizes the fluorescent properties of monomeric thiazole intercalating dyes.