Michael A. Kanters

School sport policy and school-based physical activity environments and their association with observed physical activity in middle school children

Empirical research on the effects of school sport policies on childrens physical activity is limited. This study examined sport policies (intramural vs. varsity), physical settings within schools, and supervision in relation to physical activity using the System for Observing Play and Leisure in Youth (SOPLAY). Data were collected on physical activity levels of children in four middle schools. Regression analyses assessed the main effects of sport policy, type of physical activity setting, and supervision as well as interactions. Regression models were stratified by gender. Children in intramural schools were more likely to use indoor spaces and be boys. Regression models indicated that varsity sport programs were associated with lower physical activity levels among boys but not girls. Significant associations between type of physical activity settings and physical activity levels were observed only for boys. Adult supervision was not associated with childrens physical activity levels. Finally, descriptive results showed athletic facilities were under-utilized in all schools.

Sport Fan Team Identification Formation in Mid-Level Professional Sport

Abstract Team identification, the degree to which an individual feels psychologically linked to a team, has been a focal point in studies of sport fans and sport spectatorship (e.g. Fink et al., 2002; Jones, 1997; Wann & Branscombe, 1993; Wann & Dolan, 1994; Wann & Schrader, 1997). Although the development of team identification has been examined extensively in established sport markets, the purpose of this study is to assess the relationship between sport fan team identification and motivations for initially becoming a fan of a new mid-level professional sport in a new market. A convenience sample of spectators (N=351) at an American Arena Football League (AFL) game completed a survey designed to identify and measure this relationship. A simultaneous multiple regression analysis revealed significant and positive predictive value for team identification from the following reasons for becoming a fan: parents and/or family (β=.125, p<.05), born and/or live in area (β=.210, p<.001), players and/or coaches (β=.411, p<.001), and tailgating and party atmosphere (β=.123, p<.05). The results have practical marketing implications for mid-level professional sport franchises (i.e. Womens National Basketball Association, NFL-Europe, Major League Soccer) and highlight the need for additional research across the professional sport spectrum, as franchises in these leagues struggle for market share against competing sport and entertainment options.

Shared Use of School Facilities With Community Organizations and Afterschool Physical Activity Program Participation: A Cost‐Benefit Assessment

BACKGROUND Partnerships between school districts and community-based organizations to share school facilities during afterschool hours can be an effective strategy for increasing physical activity. However, the perceived cost of shared use has been noted as an important reason for restricting community access to schools. This study examined shared use of middle school facilities, the amount and type of afterschool physical activity programs provided at middle schools together with the costs of operating the facilities. METHODS Afterschool programs were assessed for frequency, duration, and type of structured physical activity programs provided and the number of boys and girls in each program. School operating costs were used to calculate a cost per student and cost per building square foot measure. Data were collected at all 30 middle schools in a large school district over 12 months in 2010-2011. RESULTS Policies that permitted more use of school facilities for community-sponsored programs increased participation in afterschool programs without a significant increase in operating expenses. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest partnerships between schools and other community agencies to share facilities and create new opportunities for afterschool physical activity programs are a promising health promotion strategy.

School Sport Participation Under Two School Sport Policies: Comparisons by Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Socioeconomic Status

BackgroundSchool-based extracurricular sport remains an effective strategy to increase physical activity. However, school sport is often limited to a small number of elite athletes. Few schools provide more inclusive sport programs that offer a wider array of activities regardless of ability.PurposeThe aim of this study was to examine school sport participation in middle schools (ages 11–14) with contrasting school sport delivery strategies (intramural vs. interscholastic).MethodsData were obtained through an online survey administered to students at four public middle schools (grades 6–8) in a southeastern US city (n = 2,582).ResultsMore students participated in school sports at intramural schools. Boys were more likely to participate in after-school sports at intramural schools. Low-income and Black children, two groups at greater risk of physical inactivity and other negative outcomes, had greater participation in intramural programs.ConclusionsAfter-school intramural sports in middle school is a promising strategy for increasing sport participation.

Measurement Properties of Constraints to Sport Participation: A Psychometric Examination with Adolescents

Constraint are a major focus of theoretical and empirical study in leisure research. However, analyses of psychometric properties of constraints measures are rare. This study assessed the factor structure and invariance of a leisure constraints measure applied to sport participation among middle school adolescents (ages 11 to 15 years old) using panel data over two time periods nine months apart (N = 2,029). We compared the validity of three baseline models: a theoretical 3-factor model, a 7-factor model, and a second-order factor model. The 7-factor model exhibited a more appropriate measurement model based on fit indices and statistical comparisons. Using the 7-factor model, construct validity and invariance of the model over time (Time 1 and Time 2) was examined by gender, grade level, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. The model was found to be invariant at the factor loading and intercept levels, while there was some evidence of non-invariance at further constrained levels. In general, the 7-factor model appeared to be psychometrically stable and applicable over a range of demographic subgroups, lending evidence to its use as a measure in leisure or sport participation constraint studies that involve socio-demographic comparisons. The findings suggest that while the theoretical structure may be effective in simplifying constraint categories, a more detailed specification using subfactors of the dimensions is better for measurement.

Family leisure: an integrative review of research from select journals.

Abstract Understanding the relationship between leisure and families has been and will continue to be an important area of study. The purpose of this study is to review existing family leisure research from four select journals between 1990 and 2012. Articles are examined for sample characteristics, methods, analytical approaches, and thematic trends. Overall, 181 articles regarding family leisure, leisure in context of family life or roles, and individual experiences of family leisure are identified. Findings suggest scholars made strides toward expanding methods, analyses, and sampling diversity, though more diversity in sampling and analytical approaches is needed. Three major research themes are present: promoting family well-being through leisure, the costs and constraints to family leisure, and family leisure in the margins.

Afterschool shared use of public school facilities for physical activity in North Carolina

OBJECTIVE To determine the status and common characteristics of shared use in public schools in North Carolina. METHOD All public school principals (N=2,359) in North Carolina were invited to participate in an online survey (February - May, 2013) designed to provide baseline information about the extent and nature of shared use of school facilities. RESULTS Responses (n=1182, 50.1%) indicated that most schools share their facilities (88.9%). Formal agreements were more common when schools shared gyms and outdoor athletic fields. Informal agreements were most common with playgrounds and track facilities. Schools with more low income or Black students were less likely to share facilities. For schools that did not share use of their facilities the most frequent reason was no outside groups had ever asked. CONCLUSION Schools may be more accommodating to shared use partnerships. Community organizations seeking to use indoor school facilities or athletic fields should be prepared to complete a formal written agreement. Preconceived notions that schools are unwilling to share their facilities may be preventing community organizations from initiating shared use inquiries. Schools located in the middle tier of economic distress and schools with a greater concentration of Black students were less likely to share their facilities.

Place Disparities in Supportive Environments for Extracurricular Physical Activity in North Carolina Middle Schools

Disadvantaged rural youth may be especially at risk for obesity and poorer health due to physical inactivity. Research suggests that extracurricular school programs can increase physical activity for this population. This study sought to determine whether local differences existed in the availability of supportive environments for extracurricular physical activity in North Carolina middle schools. Multiple data sources, including a self-administered questionnaire to personnel at 325 schools were integrated. Multilevel models were estimated using a composite index for supportive environments as the dependent variable and school compositional factors, economic resources, and community social factors as explanatory variables. Study findings suggested adolescents living in socioeconomically deprived rural areas had fewer environmental resources for extracurricular physical activity. Rural schools in poor areas of the state with high racial heterogeneity demonstrated the lowest environmental support. Reduced availability of supportive school environments may be one factor contributing to physical inactivity in the state.

Shared use agreements and leisure time physical activity in North Carolina public schools.

Although increasing community access to public schools through shared use agreements (SUAs) has been a recommended strategy for promoting physical activity (PA) among national, state and local organizations, empirical evidence examining the efficacy of SUAs is limited. This study examined the degree of usage and production of PA among schools with shared use, and how variation in PA output is related to characteristics of the school, type of activity, facility type, and when activity occurs. Data were collected in 20 schools across North Carolina using System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) and Structured Physical Activity Surveys (SPAS) to assess PA in school athletic facilities during out of school time. Findings indicated that although schools had a policy of shared or open use, most facilities were empty during non-school hours. Hierarchal linear regression models also showed that formal programming was positively associated with both use and PA levels. Given the abundance of empty facilities, community groups in need of space to facilitate structured PA programs should pursue avenues of sharing facilities with public schools. Furthermore, to increase the efficacy of shared use, structured physical activity programs may be needed. Future studies are encouraged to further explore the effects of the specific types of shared use programs on PA production as well other aspects of the built environment surrounding schools.

Perceptions of constraints to NHL spectatorship

The purpose of this study was to better understand perceptions of constraints on National Hockey League (NHL) spectatorship. Additionally, this study sought to understand how constraints are perceived by spectators based on ticket holder type and test the negotiation thesis by comparing constraint variables across spectator motivation and team identification. The constraints scale was adopted from leisure literature and adapted to sport spectators. Two data collection methods (on-site and web-based) were used to recruit participants. A preliminary Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) found good fit for the leisure constraint scale. The results indicate that active spectators experience a variety of constraints with time and cost constraints cited as the most prevalent. Each of the constraint constructs were found to significantly lower spectator motivation and identification with the team across ticket holder types. The results of this study provide preliminary evidence of the importance of constraints in addressing NHL marketing efforts.