Michael A. McKibben

Convective hydrothermal C02 emission from high heat flow regions

Abstract In addition to volatiles released from volcanoes, the flux of CO2 to the atmosphere from other sources (e.g., metamorphism and subsurface magmatism) represents an important aspect of the global carbon cycle. We have obtained a direct estimate of the present-day atmospheric CO2 flux from convective hydrothermal systems within subaerial, seismically-active, high heat flow regions. Geothermal systems of the Salton Trough (California, U.S.A.) and the Taupo Volcanic Zone (New Zealand) provide benchmarks for quantifying convective hydrothermal CO2 fluxes from such regions. CO2 fluxes from the Salton Trough ( ∼ 109 mol yr−1) and the Taupo Volcanic Zone (∼ 8·109 mol yr−1) were computed using data on convective heat flow and the temperatures and CO2 concentrations of reservoir fluids. The similarity in specific CO2 flux ( ∼ 106 mol km−2 yr−1) from these two disparate geologic/tectonic settings implies that this flux may be used as a baseline to compute convective hydrothermal CO2 emission from other areas of high heat flow. If this specific flux is integrated over high heat flow areas of the circum-Pacific and Tethyan belts, the total global CO2 flux could equal or exceed 1012 mol yr−1 Adding this flux to a present-day volcanic CO2 flux of ∼ 4·1012 mol yr−1 the total present-day Earth degassing flux could balance the amount of CO2 consumed by chemical weathering ( ∼ 7·1012 mol yr−1).

A brine interface in the Salton Sea Geothermal System, California: Fluid geochemical and isotopic characteristics

Data from 71 geothermal production intervals in 48 wells from the Salton Sea Geothermal System (SSGS) indicate that fluids in that system cluster into two distinct populations in terms of their salinity and their stable isotopic compositions. The distinctive, hot, hypersaline brine (typically >20 wt% total dissolved solids) for which the SSGS is known is overlain by a cooler (<260°C) fluid with distinctly lower salinity (typically <10 wt% total dissolved solids). Hypersaline brines have high and rather consistent 18O shifts produced by water-rock interaction and have a very narrow range in δD values. Low TDS fluids, on the other hand, show a wide range in both δD and δ18O. Production of both types of fluid from closely spaced geothermal wells in many regions of the SSGS indicates that a relatively sharp salinity interface exists over much of the field. The fluid interface typically cross-cuts sedimentary bedding but is consistently found where reservoir temperatures are approximately 260°C. At these temperatures, hypersaline brines have densities of approximately 1.0 gm/cm3, while the low TDS fluids have densities as low as 0.85 gm/cm3. This stable, density-stratified interface acts as a barrier to convective heat and mass transfer in the SSGS, isolating the hypersaline reservoir from overlying dilute fluids. A lithologic “cap” implied by previous SSGS models is unnecessary in such a stratified system since heat and mass transfer across the interface must occur by slow conductive, diffusional and interface mixing processes regardless of local permeability.

Metamorphosed Plio-Pleistocene evaporites and the origins of hypersaline brines in the Salton Sea geothermal system, California: Fluid inclusion evidence

Abstract The Salton Sea geothermal system (SSGS) occurs in Plio-Pleistocene deltaic-lacustrine-evaporite sediments deposited in the Salton Trough, an active continental rift zone. Temperatures up to 365°C and hypersaline brines with up to 26 wt.% TDS are encountered at 1–3 km depth in the sediments, which are undergoing active greenschist facies hydrothermal metamorphism. Previous models for the origins of the Na-Ca-K-Cl brines have assumed that the high salinities were derived mainly from the downward percolation of cold, dense brines formed by low-temperature dissolution of shallow non-marine evaporites. New drillcores from the central part of the geothermal field contain metamorphosed, bedded evaporites at 1 km depth consisting largely of hornfelsic anhydrite interbedded with anhydrite-cemented solution-collapse shale breccias. Fluid inclusions trapped within the bedded and breccia-cementing anhydrite homogenize at 300°C (identical to the measured downhole temperature) and contain saline Na-Ca-K-Cl brines. Some of the inclusions contain up to 50 vol.% halite, sylvite and carbonate crystals at room temperature, and some halite crystals persist to above 300°C upon laboratory heating. The data are consistent with the trapping of halite-saturated Na-Ca-K-Cl fluids during hydrothermal metamorphism of the evaporites and accompanying solution collapse of interbedded shales. We conclude that many of the salt crystals in inclusions are the residuum of bedded evaporitic salt that was dissolved during metamorphism by heated connate fluids. Therefore, the high salinities of the Salton Sea geothermal brines are derived in part from the in situ hydrothermal metamorphism and dissolution of halides and CaSO 4 from relatively deeply-buried lacustrine evaporites. This fact places important constraints on modeling fluid-flow in the SSGS, as brines need not have migrated over great distances. The brines have been further modified to their present complex Na-Ca-K-Fe-Mn-Cl compositions by on-going sediment metamorphism and water-rock interaction.

Saline brines and metallogenesis in a modern sediment-filled rift: the Salton Sea geothermal system, California, U.S.A.

The Salton Sea geothermal system (SSGS) is the site of active hydrothermal metamorphism and metallogenesis in the delta of the Colorado River, which partially fills the Salton Trough rift zone at the head of the Gulf of California. Growth of the delta across the rift has isolated the northern part of the Salton Trough since the Pleistocene, forming the evaporative Salton Sea basin whose sediments host the SSGS. More than 70 commercial geothermal wells, including a 3.2 km deep research borehole drilled as part of the Salton Sea Scientific Drilling Project (SSSDP), are yielding a wealth of new data from this system. Within the SSGS, active greenschist facies metamorphism is occuring at temperatures ⩽365°C at only 2–3 km depth, by reaction of NaCaKFeMnCl brines with the deltaic and lacustrine Pilo-Pleistocene sediments. Two kinds of base metal ore mineralization occur at depth: stratabound diagenetic Fe sulfides, and epigenetic vertical veins containing FeZnCuPb sulfides and Fex oxides. The vein mineralization occurs as two types: an older, reduced carbonate-sulfide assemblage, and a modern, oxidized, silicate-hematite-sulfide assemblage. The earlier assemblage formed at temperatures up to 100°C higher than the ambient temperatures measured in the wells today, implying that cooler, oxidized fluids have displaced hot, reduced fluids. A sharp interface between shallow fluids containing <12 wt % TDS and deep hypersaline brines containing 15–27 wt % TDS exists in the SSGS. The deeper hypersaline brines are rich in base metals (Fe ≅ 1500 ppm, Mn ≅ 1000 ppm, Zn ≅ 500 ppm) whereas the overlying lower-salinity fluids contain less than 100 ppm each of Fe, Mn and Zn. The modern silicate-hematite-sulfide vein assemblage is precipitating where the two fluids appear to be mixing. The two fluid types also have distincty different δ18O and δD relations. The shallow lower-salinity fluids have only partially-exchanged oxygen with deltaic and lacustrine host rocls. The deep hypersaline brines have exchanged oxygen extensively at 250°C with the deltaic sediments. δD values of the hypersaline brines are typically lighter than either the lower-salinity fluids or the modern evaporating groundwaters occupying the Salton Trough, implying a different source for the original fluids. The high salinities of the geothermal brines are derived from a combination of evaporation of fossil lakewaters, groundwater dissolution of shallow lacustrine evaporites, and subsurface hydrothermal metamorphism of buried lacustrine evaporites. Episodic filling and desiccation of the closed Salton Sea basin has allowed cold saline brines to form and percolate down into the sedimentary section. In some wells anyhydrite meta-evaporites and interbedded solution collapse breccias occur at 1 km depth. The anyhydrite contains fluid inclusions that are saturated in halite at their homogenization temperatures of 300°C, recording the hydrothermal dissolution of bedded salt. Based on Sr and Pb isotopic data and whole-rock chemical data, the source of the metals in the hypersaline brines is from leaching of the host sediments. However, the origin of reduced S for ore mineralization remains an enigma. δ34S values for vein sulfides cluster uniformly around zero per mil, implying that an isotopically-homogeneous source of reduced sulfide exists in the brines. It is possible that the vein sulfides receive a constribution from a magmatic S source. Movement and mixing of brines of different chemistry and oxidation states play a major role in ore genesis. Our model envisages an early stage in which a deep brine pool accumulated at depth in the sedimentary section by partial section by partial evaporation of basin and dissolution of bedded salts. Intrusion of rift-related basaltic magma into the base of the sedimentary caused heatingand fracturing of the sediments, resulting in precipitation of the carbonate-sulfide veins during pore fluid expulsion. Heating also caused a diapir of the hypersaline brine to rise and displace colder, less saline, shallower pore fluids. This brine intrusion was accompanied by pervasive and extensive mineralization. As this diapir cooled it began to move downward, drawing in shallow, more oxidized fluids and causing the formation of the modern silicate-hematite-sulfide vein ore zone.