Michael Bar-Eli

Anticipation of ball location in low and high-skill performers: a developmental perspective

Abstract Objectives: To study how visual anticipatory capabilities develop in high and low-skill tennis players and the role of years of practice (i.e. experience). It was expected that with accumulated experience differences will increase with skill-level, in particular under conditions of fast visual exposure which results in minimal environmental information exposure. Method: Eighty tennis players divided into 4 age categories and 2 skill levels (high and low) were selected according to 4 criterion which ensured appropriate representation of skill-level and experience in tennis. Age categories were 8–11, 11–14, 14–18, and >18. Years of experience in the game were 2.12, 4.17, 6.5, and 12.4 years respectively. Players observed filmed segments of tennis strokes on a monitor, which varied in temporal occlusion conditions from −480 ms prior to ball-racquet contact to 320 ms after contact. After each exposure they were asked to indicate the final ball location. The radial, lateral, and depth distances were averaged for age and skill level. Design: A temporal occlusion paradigm was used in this study. The film was prepared with a camera positioned in the receivers court. Eight strokes which best represent the game of tennis were chosen. Forty-eight segments were viewed and errors were calculated for each exposure. Result: High-skill tennis players gained more from practice and experience in developing visual anticipatory skills, but their perceptual advantage was not consistent across all stroke conditions, being at its greatest number in conditions of maximal temporal constraints. Conclusions: Differences in visual anticipatory capabilities exist between different skill levels at the outset of their development. These differences increase with experience, mainly after 6–7 years. Greater knowledge base does not always guarantee a superior anticipation of upcoming events and choosing the best decision.

Psychological benefits of sports for disabled people: a review

This article reviews literature on the psychological benefits of sports for the disabled. Beginning with traditional models and resource development models of rehabilitation, an integrative model of sports for the disabled is suggested, emphasizing the concept of efficacy‐based empowerment through sport. Empirical research is reviewed according to the conceptual categories of this model: (a) performance accomplishments and functional efficiency, (b) perceived self‐efficacy, (c) self‐concept and self‐esteem, (d) personality disorders, mood states and locus of control and (e) activity level and social acceptance. This review suggests that most psychological constructs expressed within the empowerment model are positively affected by physical activity in disabled people, when applied properly. Several recommendations are outlined for beneficial application of the model in practice as well as for future research topics.

Penalty kicks in soccer: an empirical analysis of shooting strategies and goalkeepers’ preferences

The outcomes of penalty kicks in soccer have assumed the utmost importance in the last few decades. However, it seems that shooting strategy is often based more on intuition than on careful research. To find out what should be the kicker’s best strategy, two studies were conducted. In the first one, data about 311 penalty kicks in top leagues and championships worldwide were collected and analysed. The results suggested that kicks to the upper area of the goal are the hardest to stop. A second study, in which top goalkeepers were surveyed, revealed that goalkeepers were most satisfied when they stopped a high kick – especially to the top corners – whereas missing such a kick caused the least dissatisfaction. Based on these studies, we suggest that the best shooting strategy of penalty kicks may be to aim to the upper two corners. Proper training should help in reducing the possible miss rate of such kicks.

The Effect of Mental Training with Biofeedback on the Performance of Young Swimmers

Cette recherche porte sur la relation que l’entrainement mental entretient avec le biofeedback et la performance. C’est une version adaptee de l’approche en cinq etapes de Wingate qui a ete utilisee comme technique de preparation mentale en vue de l’amelioration des performances en natation chez des nageurs de 11 a 14 ans. Les participants (N= 38) ont ete distribues au hasard a l’une des deux conditions suivantes: (a) Un entrainement experimental regulier assorti de trois etapes du programme Wingate; (b) Un entrainement de controle regulier avec de la relaxation. Apres une mesure de depart, les participants ont ete testes sur des scores d’evaluation et sur leur performance reelle deux fois sur une periode de quatorze semaines. Le groupe experimental progressa davantage, mais le groupe controle s’ameliora aussi. Ces resultats sont examines a partir des travaux anterieurs sur l’approche de Wingate. En outre, on aborde certains problemes methodologiques et theoriques qui concernent specialement l’appel a de telles procedures dans d’autres specialites sportives chez les enfants, les adolescents, et les adultes. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between mental training with biofeedback and performance. An adapted version of the Wingate five-step approach was used as a mental preparation technique for enhancing the swimming performance among 11–14-year-old children swimmers. Participants (n= 38) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: (a) experimental—regular training plus three stages of the Wingate mental training program, and (b) control—regular training and relaxing activities. After a baseline measurement, participants were tested on evaluation scores and actual performance twice during a 14-week period. Results indicated that the experimental group exhibited a greater increase in performance, although the control group also displayed some improvements. Results are discussed in reference to previous work on the Wingate approach to mental training. In addition, several methodological and theoretical aspects are discussed that are particularly relevant to the use of such interventions with other athletic tasks among children, adolescents, and adults.

The augmenting role of biofeedback: Effects of autogenic, imagery and music training on physiological indices and athletic performance

In this study, three psychoregulative procedures of relaxation and excitation were provided in combination with biofeedback to examine their role on physiological and athletic performance variables. Thirty-nine college students were randomly assigned to three groups of psychoregulatory treatment (autogenic and imagery training, AT+IT; music and imagery training, M+IT; autogenic, music and imagery training, AT+M+IT), one placebo group and the control group. Imagery was related to a 100-m run. The treatment and control conditions lasted 13 sessions of 20 min each. During the first seven sessions, the subjects in the treatment groups underwent 10 min of relaxation followed by 10 min of excitation. During the last six sessions, similar treatment was provided accompanied by frontalis EMG biofeedback. Heart rate, the galvanic skin response, EMG and breathing frequency (fb) were recorded three times during each session. In addition, an athletic task (100-m run) was examined at the outset, after seven sessions (no biofeedback) and after an additional six sessions (with biofeedback). Biofeedback was found to have a significant augmenting effect on physiological components and athletic performance when accompanied by autogenic, imagery and music training. Soft music was found to be as beneficial as other relaxation techniques. The results are compared with similar studies applying mental techniques with biofeedback, and new directions of investigation in the psychophysiological domain are suggested.

Anxiety, Self-Control and Shooting Performance

55 rifle shooters were administered state-trait anxiety and self-control questionnaires. Shooting performance was recorded on 7 competitive occasions. Analysis indicated shooting performance is dependent more on anxiety state than on anxiety trait and self-control. Highly skilled shooters were less anxious and performed better across all competitions than moderately skilled shooters but did not differ on self-control and anxiety trait. The assumption that increased anxiety negatively affects performance through the mediation of self-control should be further studied.

Predicting dropout in male youth soccer using the theory of planned behavior.

This investigation prospectively predicted dropout among young soccer players, using the theory of planned behavior (TPB). First, behavioral beliefs required to develop a TPB‐questionnaire were elicited from 53 male soccer players, aged 13–15 years. Second, at the beginning of the soccer season, 354 different male soccer players aged 13–15 years completed this questionnaire, thereby assessing direct dimensions (intention, attitude, subjective norm, perceived control) and indirect dimensions (attitudinal, normative and control beliefs) derived from TPB. Nine months later – upon termination of the soccer season – these players were classified into 323 perserverers and 31 dropouts, with TPB being applied prospectively to predict these two groups. For both direct and indirect dimensions, between‐group comparisons revealed significant differences in favor of the perseverers. Discriminant analyses revealed five measures (intention, attitude, subjective norm, a normative belief, and a control belief), which enabled a 22.1% a priori dropout prediction when used within a suitable equation. In conclusion, TPB may have a promising application to prospectively discriminate dropouts from perseverers, providing a potential predictive a priori classification model for sport participation.

Regulation of mental states and biofeedback techniques effects on breathing pattern

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether breathing pattern may be used as a reliable index for the effectiveness of techniques applied for the regulation of mental states. Heart rate (HR), breathing pattern, galvanic skin response (GSR), and electromyogram (EMG) of the frontalis muscle were measured in 39 male and female subjects aged 18–25 years during 10-minute treatment with relaxation technique (autogenic training and/or music) followed by 10 minutes of imagery training. In the first 7 sessions biofeedback (BFB) was not included, while during the last 6 sessions BFB was introduced and utilized by the subjects. Relaxation (music or autogenic training) led to a decrease in breathing frequency, attributed to lengthening of expiration time, as well as reduced HR, GSR, and frontalis EMG response. In most instances imagery training was related to an increase in these indices. Specifically, significant tachypnea was observed during imagery of sprint running. In most cases BFB substantially augmented the physiological responses. In conclusion, our data suggest that, compared with HR, GSR, and EMG responses, the breathing pattern is at least as sensitive to the mental techniques employed, and may be useful as a psychophysiological index for diagnosis and testing, especially in sport practice.

Information recall of younger and older skilled athletes: The role of display complexity, attentional resources and visual exposure duration

This study was concerned with the interactive role of experience of athletic skill with other relevant environmental variables (display complexity, attentional resources, exposure time of stimuli) on perception (recall) of structured handball game situations. Nineteen experienced (older) and 19 less experienced (younger) handball players were assigned randomly either to ball-bouncing (diverted attention) or to calm seated (focused attention) conditions. In each of the two conditions, the subjects were exposed to a total of 36 slides containing 2-3, 5-6 and 8-10 players. Eighteen slides were exposed for 0.5 s and 18 for 1.0 s. All the slides contained structured defence and offence situations. Recall scores were subjected to repeated-measures ANOVA using attention condition and age as between-subject factors and task complexity and exposure duration as within-subject factors. The results showed that the recall of less experienced players deteriorated more than the recall of more experienced players following exposure to complex displays (> or = 8 players) while engaging in a secondary task (bouncing). The findings suggest that research paradigms should be applied in the field of sport which share both ecological validity and a potential to discover the cognitive substrates underlying experience and age in skilled motor performance.

Personality and Intellectual Capabilities in Sport Psychology

More than four decades ago, philosophers Dewey and Bentley (1949) argued that there are three phases in the development of theories in each scientific discipline: (a) self-action, in which objects are regarded as behaving under their own power; (b) interaction, in which objects are regarded as being in a causal interaction where one acts upon another; and (c) process transaction, in which objects are regarded as relating to one another within a system. Within psychology, it has long been debated as to which source accounts for most of the variance in human behavior (Houts, Cook, & Shadish, 1986; Kenrick & Funder, 1988; Pervin, 1985). For instance, Ekehammar (1974) differentiated between “personologism” (which advocates stable, intraorganismic constructs as the main determinants of behavioral variance) and “situationism” (which emphasizes situational factors as the main source of be-havioral variance). It seemed to Ekehammar that personality psychology was moving toward being governed by interactionism. The latter “can be regarded as the synthesis of personologism and situationism, which implies that neither the person nor the situation per se is emphasized, but the interaction of these two factors is regarded as the main source of behavioral variation” (p. 1026).