Ronnie Lidor

Focus of attention during motor skill performance

The effect of strategy instruction on response time in a sequential keypressing task was compared during acquisition and retention. Specifically, this study determined the influence of: (1) an awareness strategy, (2) a non-awareness strategy, (3) a Five-Step Approach strategy and (4) a control condition. Sixty-four subjects completed 250 trials of nine sequential keypresses, and 50 trials of a dual task (keypresses and verbal report). Faster response times were found for the Five-Step Approach and non-awareness strategies during both acquisition and retention. Introducing beginners to strategies that are used by highly skilled performers facilitated response times.

Teaching Preperformance Routines to Beginners

irtually all skilled athletes who are involved in sports that conV tain brief self-paced acts have been taught, or else have intuitively developed, preperformance routines. Self-paced acts are those performed in a relatively stable and predictable environment where there is adequate time to prepare for execution (e.g., diving, weight-lifting, bowling, archery, free-throw shooting, golfing) (Singer, 1988). This extra time is often used for a preperformance routine-some plan, procedure, or ritual that facilitates learning and performance and gives performers control over their motor, emotional, and cognitive behaviors. The most effective preperformance routines are usually employed with a high degree of consistency. That is, either deliberately or subconsciously (depending on the performer’s skill level), they become an integral part of the act itself. Preperformance routines can also be used in semi-stable settings. For example, before performing the 11-meter penalty kick in soccer or the 7-meter penalty throw in team-handball, the athlete has to consider the goalkeeper’s stance and potential movements. Although one of the conditions in these events is neither stable nor easy to an ticipate (the goalkeeper’s actions), the attacker can still plan an act in advance. The general purpose of a preperformance routine is to put oneself in an optimally aroused, confident, and focused state immediately before as well as during execution. By blocking out negative thoughts and external distractions (Moran, 1996) and developing personalized and meaningful self-regulatory techniques, performers can direct their emotions, thoughts, and movements in a way that creates ideal inner harmony (Anderson, 1997; Cohn, 1990; Weinberg & Gould, 1999). They are then more likely to perform the act at a level equal to their true capabilities. For example, golfers who are in ideal preperformance states often have the feel and timing that enable them to make great shots. Many athletes, especially under severe competitive stress, may handicap themselves with self-doubt; too much tension and distraction; or a fear of failing, looking bad, or letting others down. The preperformance routine is an enabler, in that it allows individuals to become immersed in the act with the belief that their performance will be successful. In order to effectively use preperformance routines in sport, however, one should acquire these techniques as early as possible during the process of learning the sport itself. If specific sport skills are learned at an early age (Christina & Corcos, 1988), then the preparation routines that are performed in combination with these skills should be taught early as well. Unfortunately, neither the theoretical nor the applied literature provide any recommendations on how to (1) teach preperformance routines to young learners, (2) incorporate these routines with successful execution, or (3) integrate these routines into competitive sport situations. The purpose of this article is to examine the effectiveness of using preperformance routines in self-paced acts performed by young athletes. Learning capabilities and instructional considerations are discussed at length in order to help coaches and physical educators teach young athletes how to implement appropriate preperformance routines.

Working with adolescent soccer and basketball players from conflicting cultures--a three-dimensional consultation approach

In this article the authors describe how one sport psychology consultant (SPC) worked with soccer and basketball teams that were composed of adolescent male players from conflicting cultures (Jewish and Arab). The article also highlights the fact that in order to foster relationships among the players, the SPC used a three-dimensional approach—working with the coaches of the teams, the players, and the parents of the players. The authors describe the types of consultation sessions the SPC had with the coaches, players, and parents and the activities he preferred to use in his consultations. The authors also present a number of lessons they have learned from their work with adolescent players from conflicting cultures.

The Effect of Attention Allocation Instructions on Self-paced Task Performance under Quiet and Distracted Conditions

This study examined the effectiveness of external and internal focusing attention instructions on the performance of three throwing tasks under both quiet and distracted conditions. The main finding was that during acquisition, the external focus of attention led to improved performance when compared to internal focus of attention and control, but only under quiet conditions. It was also found that during auditory and visual distraction conditions, both types of focus attention produced similar levels of performance, and both groups were superior to the control condition. It is suggested that sport psychology consultants provide their athletes with external focusing attention instructions.

On-field performances of female and male field hockey players – A review

The main purpose of this study was to review a series of studies (N = 23) on on-field performances of female and male field hockey players. Studies were selected from a computerized search in electronic databases (SPORTDiscus, Google Scholar), as well as from a manual search. Among the main findings that emerged from the studies on female players were that (a) the mean distance covered during a game ranged between 5.5-6.6 km, (b) the individual playing time was approximately 48 min, and (c) the average heart rate (HR) was approximately 170 beats·min-1. For the male players, it was found that (a) the total distance covered per playing position for the duration of the game ranged from ∼5,820 m to ∼10,000 m, (b) the players spent most of the time and covered most of the distance while performing low-and moderate-intensity activities, and (c) the players’ HR was over 75% of HRmax for 90% of the game. Among the methodological and measurement concerns discussed in the article are: the variation in the selection of different locomotion categories, the lack of data on game results and opponent strength, and the presentation of data per individual player and/or per playing position.

Accuracy and Gaze Behavior of a Closed, Self-Paced Task Performed Under Varied Conditions

Closed, self-paced tasks are typically performed in a stable environment, but some features of the environment may vary (e.g., quiet/noisy conditions) or may negatively influence the outcome ofperformance. Optimal gaze behavior, and specifically long quiet eye (QE) durations, has been found to be associated with improved performance of closed, self-paced tasks. The purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between QE and accuracy of a golf-putting task under both quiet and distracted conditions in 24 male physical education students. Accuracy of performance and gaze behavior were measured in both conditions. Data analyses revealed that the presence of noise led to reduced quiet eye duration and accuracy, and that golf-putting performances improved in a transfer task compared to both acquisition and retention tasks. Future studies should examine whether maintaining QE durations, or training for longer QE durations, can prevent deterioration in performance under distracted conditions.

The effect of age on gaze behavior in drivers and pedestrians – a review

Gaze behavior can play an important role in the safety of both older drivers and older pedestrians, and therefore evidence-based knowledge related to gaze behavior in the older population should be communicated to those professionals who regularly work with this group. A review of 25 studies examining the effect of age on gaze behavior in drivers and pedestrians was conducted. A number of differences in gaze behavior in older and younger drivers and pedestrians are observed, among them (a) when changing lanes, older drivers do not glance as frequently as younger drivers at three important areas – the rear view mirror, the left side mirror, and the left blind spot, and (b) older drivers have a smaller horizontal gaze amplitude compared to younger drivers. Several methodological concerns were observed, among them: a scarcity of data on gaze behavior and elderly pedestrians and a lack of intervention studies. Additional studies should examine the use of a vision-in-action paradigm and designated gaze-training interventions in both the elderly driver and elderly pedestrian populations, in order to reduce the number of motor vehicle accidents and pedestrian injuries among the older population

Attentional Focus and Motor Learning in Clinical Settings and in Older Age: A Review

During the past two decades, research has shown that an external focus (EF) of attention is superior to an internal focus (IF) of attention when performing a variety of motor skills. However, most of the studies on the use of EF and IF instructions for motor skill acquisition were conducted on young and healthy adults. The purpose of the current article was fourfold: (a) to review the current research on attentional focus in clinical populations and in older age, (b) to provide evidence-based knowledge about attentional focus instructions and their possible advantages in clinical settings, (c) to discuss methodological concerns associated with the reviewed studies, and (d) to propose practical implications for those who work with clinical populations and older individuals. We found that in 14 out of the 18 reviewed studies, EF instructions led to results that were superior to those of IF instructions. For example, in stroke patients, EF instructions can lead to faster, smoother, and more forceful reaching...