Michael Brian Schiffer

Toward the identification of formation processes

Research in experimental archaeology, ethnoarchaeology, geoarchaeology, and vertebrate taphonomy has appreciably increased our general understanding of the formation processes—cultural and natural—of archaeological sites. In synthesizing some of these recent advances, this paper focuses on the traces of artifacts and characteristics of deposits that can be used to identify the formation processes of specific deposits. These observational phenomena are grouped into three basic categories that structure the presentation: (1) simple properties of artifacts, (2) complex properties of artifacts, and (3) other properties of deposits. Also considered is the way in which prior knowledge can help the archaeologist to cope with the large number of processes and the nearly infinite combination of them that may have contributed to the specific deposits of interest. Several analytical strategies are proposed: (1) hypothesis testing, (2) multivariate analysis, and (3) use of published data to evaluate formation processes. This paper demonstrates that the identification of formation processes, which must precede behavioral inference and be accomplished by any research endeavor that uses evidence from the archaeological record, can become practical and routine.

Radiocarbon dating and the “old wood” problem: The case of the Hohokam chronology

Abstract Many archaeological chronologies, including that of the Hohokam in southern Arizona, are based on a series of radiocarbon dates on wood. This paper argues that because of variability in rates of wood decay processes (in the environment and in systemic context), such archaeological chronologies are potentially biased towards excessive antiquity by an old wood problem and must be reassessed. Following the theoretical insights of Dean (1978) , this paper sets forth principles and procedures for relating radiocarbon dates to cultural events. Emphasis is placed on identifying and taking into account the formation processes of (1) the dated specimens and (2) the deposits that yielded them. This methodological framework is applied to Hohokam radiocarbon dates, and a chronology much shorter than the original Gladwin-Haury formulation is supported.

The explanation of artifact variability

We furnish a theoretical framework for explaining that portion of formal variability in artifacts attributable to the behavior of the artisan. Major causal factors are the artisans knowledge and experience, extent of feedback on performance in activities along the artifacts behavioral chain, situational factors in behavioral chain activities, technological constraints, and social processes of conflict and negotiation. In identifying the causal factors at work in a specific case, the investigator must focus analytically on activities-that is, on people-people, people-artifact, and artifact-artifact interactions-and on the performance characteristics relevant to each. Application of this behavioral framework allows abandonment of many cherished but unhelpful concepts, including style and function. Ceramic artifacts, the low-fired, clay cooking pot in particular, are employed for illustrative purposes.

A theory of architectural design

Abstract A rudimentary theory to explain the design of vernacular structures is presented. Conceiving of architectural design as a social process, the theory focuses on the influence of utilitarian and symbolic functions as well as on the trade-offs between production and maintenance costs. A particular design is viewed as the outcome of a process of compromise among conflicting goals, influenced by factors of adaptation and social organization. The theory is used to generate an explanatory sketch for why the prehistoric Anasazi of the American Southwest went from being pithouse to pueblo dwellers.

The Structure of Archaeological Theory

Contradictory programmatic statements have increased uncertainty about the nature and roles of theory in archaeology. However, a framework can be constructed that ties together diverse kinds of theory that archaeologists use-and often create. Three overarching realms of theory can be recognized, each consisting of one or more functionally defined domains: social theory, reconstruction theory (the domains are material-culture dynamics and cultural and noncultural formation processes of the archaeological record), and methodological theory (the domains are recovery, analysis, and inference). Within each domain are high-level, mid-level, and low-level theories. Previous investigators often have overlooked the richness and complexity of archaeological theory, sometimes generalizing from a very narrow perspective.

The design of archaeological surveys

Abstract Archaeological survey design is viewed as a problem in choosing techniques for site and artefact discovery that are most cost‐effective given the particular archaeological and environmental characteristics of the study area. Uncontrollable factors of the study area discussed are abundance, clustering, obtrusiveness of archaeological materials, and visibility and accessibility. Both purposive and probabilistic techniques for varying discovery probabilities are examined within the framework of recovery theory. In addition, other considerations involved in survey design are reviewed, including field crews, site definition, recording procedures, surface collecting and testing. Finally, a three‐stage survey programme is outlined, wherein stress is laid on acquiring the knowledge needed for making decisions about survey techniques.

Organic tempered pottery: an experimental study

This paper presents the results of testing technological and techno-functional hypotheses concerning the effects of organic temper. Behaviorally relevant tests are used to compare the performance characteristics of untempered, mineral-, and organic-tempered briquettes and vessels. The characteristics tested include impact resistance, abrasion resistance, portability, thermal shock resistance, ease of manufacture, and heating effectiveness. Organic-tempered ceramics have superior performance characteristics during manufacture, allowing for an expedient ceramic technology. This, along with reduced weight and greater portability, may explain the preference for organic-tempered vessels by groups that frequently shift their residence. Moreover, it is found that all low-fired ceramics, but especially organic-tempered ceramics, are susceptible to complete breakdown in a moist environment under freeze-thaw conditions. Frost wedging is thought to be responsible for an underestimation of Late Archaic organic-tempered ceramics in northern latitudes as well as the destruction of any low-fired pottery subject to a moist depositional environment and freeze-thaw cycles.

NEW PERSPECTIVES ON EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY: SURFACE TREATMENTS AND THERMAL RESPONSE OF THE CLAY COOKING POT

This paper examines pottery technology and change through the eyes of the experimental archaeologist. A new vision is presented of experimental archaeology and the role its findings can play in archaeological explanation. It is argued that the most useful results of experimental archaeology are best obtained with long-term research programs. This perspective is illustrated by a case study of the relations between surface treatments (interior and exterior) and thermal performance in cookingpots. The experiments indicate that surface treatments like texturing, organic coatings, and smudging have marked impacts on thermal shock cracking and on thermal spalling in simulated cooking. It is emphasized that the findings of experimental archaeology, expressed as correlates, can be employed in explanations of prehistoric technological change, but only when embedded in more inclusive correlate theories and coupled with the requisite contextual information.

Some relationships between behavioral and evolutionary archaeologies

Diversity in archaeologys social theories is desirable, but factioning of the discipline into antagonistic, paradigm-based camps undermines the scientific enterprise. In order to promote efforts at building bridges between different theoretical programs, this paper examines relationships between behavioral archaeology and evolutionary (selectionist) archaeology. Potential common ground is brought to light, incompatibilities are critically examined, and possible synergies are explored. It is concluded that there is no fundamental reason why these two programs cannot work in concert to achieve the goal of explaining behavioral (or evolutionary) change in human societies. Whether productive relationships can be established between other programs remains to be determined on a case-by-case basis.

The influence of surface treatment on heating effectiveness of ceramic vessels

Abstract Tests were carried out on miniature ceramic vessels to ascertain the influence of various traditional surface treatments on heating effectiveness (the rate at which a vessel, placed over a heat source, raises the temperature of water). The principal findings are (1) interior and exterior surface treatments do markedly affect heating effectiveness; indeed, there is an inverse relationship between surface permeability (as measured by initial absorption tests) and heating effectiveness, (2) impermeable interior surfaces, which the potter or pot user can create by application of resin or other gunk, produce excellent heating effectiveness, and (3) once the interior surface is made impermeable, exterior surface treatments have no appreciable influence on heating effectiveness.