Michael Crose

Analyzing spatial correlations in tissue using angle-resolved low coherence interferometry measurements guided by co-located optical coherence tomography.

Angle-resolved low coherence interferometry (a/LCI) is an optical technique used to measure nuclear morphology in situ. However, a/LCI is not an imaging modality and can produce ambiguous results when the measurements are not properly oriented to the tissue architecture. Here we present a 2D a/LCI system which incorporates optical coherence tomography imaging to guide the measurements. System design and characterization are presented, along with example cases which demonstrate the utility of the combined measurements. In addition, future development and applications of this dual modality approach are discussed.

Comparison of imaging fiber bundles for coherence-domain imaging

Use of imaging fiber bundles for coherence-domain imaging has remained limited to date. In this work, we provide characterization of commercially available imaging bundles for coherence-domain imaging, by evaluating their modal structure for applicability to interferometric imaging. We further examine custom fabricated bundles developed in collaboration with a corporate partner for their ability to reduce interelement optical path length variability and cross talk between elements. The results presented here will serve as a useful guide for comparing fiber bundles for coherence imaging while also offering an improved understanding of the functionality and limitations of imaging bundles for advancing coherent imaging technologies.

Dual-axis optical coherence tomography for deep tissue imaging

We have developed dual-axis optical coherence tomography (DA-OCT) which enables deep tissue imaging by using a novel off-axis illumination/detection configuration. DA-OCT offers a 100-fold speed increase compared with its predecessor, multispectral multiple-scattering low coherence interferometry (ms2/LCI), by using a new beam scanning mechanism based on a microelectro-mechanical system (MEMS) mirror. The data acquisition scheme was altered to take advantage of this scanning speed, producing tomographic images at a rate of 4 frames (B-scans) per second. DA-OCT differs from ms2/LCI in that the dual axes intersect at a shallower depth (∼1  mm). This difference, coupled with the faster scanning speed, shifts the detection priority from multiply scattered to ballistic light. The utility of this approach was demonstrated by imaging both ex vivo porcine ear skin and in vivo rat skin from a McFarlane flap model. The enhanced penetration depth provided by the DA-OCT system will be beneficial to various clinical applications in dermatology and surgery.

In vivo mapping of the cervical epithelium using multiplexed low-coherence interferometry (Conference Presentation)

The early detection of cervical dysplasia enables early treatment, a critical factor in cancer prevention. In the United States, cervical cancer screening is age-based and includes cervical cytology with human papilloma virus (HPV) testing with referral to colposcopy for abnormal results. Colposcopy is used to visualize changes in the appearance of the transformation zone to direct biopsies which can confirm a diagnosis of dysplasia or cancer. Directed biopsies can be limited in detection of abnormalities because they represent a small area of the transformation zone and can be limited by provider expertise. Additionally, biopsies contribute to patient discomfort and anxiety awaiting for results. We recently reported the first in vivo cervical data from angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry (a/LCI), an optical technique that measures nuclear size as a biomarker for dysplasia, which is well-suited for screening due to its high sensitivity and specificity and its non-invasive utilization. However, in order to target the single-point measurements of the a/LCI instrument, we aimed to construct a probe capable of mapping the cervical epithelium to identify the transformation zone between the ectocervical and endocervical epithelia, the location at which dysplasia is most likely to develop. We termed this complementary technology multiplexed low-coherence interferometer (m/LCI). Thirty-six parallel fiber-optic interferometers were constructed to obtain optical depth profiles using spectral-domain LCI. Light from each channel is delivered to the cervix via a 6x6 fiber-optic bundle and a custom endoscopic probe. The depth-profile from each optical channel enables the identification of the ectocervix and endocervix. A pilot study at Duke University (n=5) was followed by an ongoing clinical study at New York City Health + Hospitals/Jacobi (Bronx, New York) (current n=20, target n=50). We present the results from these first studies to demonstrate the feasibility of m/LCI as a means of identifying the transformation zone for screening of dysplasia.

Real-time speckle reduction in optical coherence tomography using the dual window method

Speckle is an intrinsic noise of interferometric signals which reduces contrast and degrades the quality of optical coherence tomography (OCT) images. Here, we present a frequency compounding speckle reduction technique using the dual window (DW) method. Using the DW method, speckle noise is reduced without the need to acquire multiple frames. A ~25% improvement in the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) was achieved using the DW speckle reduction method with only minimal loss (~17%) in axial resolution. We also demonstrate that real-time speckle reduction can be achieved at a B-scan rate of ~21 frames per second using a graphic processing unit (GPU). The DW speckle reduction technique can work on any existing OCT instrument without further system modification or extra components. This makes it applicable both in real-time imaging systems and during post-processing.

Novel multiplexed low coherence interferometry endoscopic probe for analyzing the cervical epithelium in vivo (Conference Presentation)

The cervix is primarily composed of two types of epithelium: stratified squamous ectocervix and simple columnar endocervix. In between these two layers lies a metaplastic squamocolumnar junction commonly referred to as the transformation zone (T-zone). During puberty, the cervical epithelium undergoes dynamic changes including cervical ectropion and increased area and rates of metaplasia. Although these metaplastic changes have been linked to higher incidence of cervical cancer among young women, research in this field has been limited to surface analysis using computerized planimetry of colopophotographs. Here, we present a novel multiplexed low coherence interferometry (mLCI) system for interrogating the cervical epithelium. The system is comprised of 6 parallel Mach-Zehnder interferometers in a time-multiplexed configuration that increases throughput by 6-fold to realize a combined 36-channel acquisition. A custom designed endoscopic handheld probe is used to collect sparsely sampled, depth-resolved scattering intensity profiles (A-scans) from a large field of view (25 x 25 mm) on the cervical epithelium in vivo. The instrument incorporates white light imaging through a plastic fiber bundle to co-register the mLCI A-scans to colpophotographs which are analyzed by a clinician to manually segment the cervical epithelium. Our preliminary data shows significant differences in characteristic A-scans from endocervical and ectocervical epithelium. These results demonstrate the feasibility of using mLCI as both a research tool for studying the relationship between cervical ectopy and cancer as well as a clinical instrument for identifying the at-risk T-zone on the cervix in vivo as a means to improve biopsy targeting. Further analysis will be performed to develop an algorithm for distinguishing the mLCI A-scans of endocervical, ectocervical, and metaplastic epithelium in real time.