Michael D. Newcomb

Development and validation of a brief screening version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire

OBJECTIVE The goal of this study was to develop and validate a short form of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (the CTQ-SF) as a screening measure for maltreatment histories in both clinical and nonreferred groups. METHOD Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the 70 original CTQ items were used to create a 28-item version of the scale (25 clinical items and three validity items) and test the measurement invariance of the 25 clinical items across four samples: 378 adult substance abusing patients from New York City, 396 adolescent psychiatric inpatients, 625 substance abusing individuals from southwest Texas, and 579 individuals from a normative community sample (combined N=1978). RESULTS Results showed that the CTQ-SFs items held essentially the same meaning across all four samples (i.e., measurement invariance). Moreover, the scale demonstrated good criterion-related validity in a subsample of adolescents on whom corroborative data were available. CONCLUSIONS These findings support the viability of the CTQ-SF across diverse clinical and nonreferred populations.

Risk factors for drug use among adolescents: concurrent and longitudinal analyses.

We examined the concurrent and longitudinal associations between risk factors and substance use for a sample of high school students. Ten risk factors were defined that assessed numerous important personal and social areas of life. These factors were found to be associated with ever using, frequency of use, and heavy use of cigarettes, alcohol, cannabis, and hard drugs. Few effects were noted for nonprescription medication. No sex differences were evident for number of risk factors. Finally, the number of different risk factors was predictive of increases in use of all types of substances over a one-year period, after controlling for initial level of use.

Predictors of Early High School Dropout: A Test of Five Theories.

This study compared the adequacy of 5 theories to predict dropping out of high school before the 10th grade. These theories include full mediation by academic achievement and direct effects related to general deviance, deviant affiliation, family socialization, and structural strains. Nested latent variable models were used to test these theories on prospective data from an ethnically diverse urban sample. Poor academic achievement mediated the effect of all independent factors on school dropout, although general deviance, bonding to antisocial peers, and socioeconomic status also retained direct effects on dropping out. Therefore, none of the theories tested was fully adequate to explain the data, although partial support was obtained for each theory. Implications for prevention of early high school dropout are discussed.

Life events and substance use among adolescents: mediating effects of perceived loss of control and meaninglessness in life.

Throughout history, alcohol and other drugs have been used to provide relief in times of stress and frustration. Research has confirmed this association between disruptive life change events and substance use. It was hypothesized that two psychological constructs facilitate and mediate this relation between stress and substance use. Uncontrollable stress (negative life change events) was assumed to create a sense of loss of control, which in turn engendered a decreased level of meaning in life. This meaninglessness in life, experienced as distressful and uncomfortable, is then treated or medicated with various drug substances. This theoretical sequential model was tested in two separate studies with independent samples of adolescents (one sample collected by the Rutgers University and the other collected by the University of California, Los Angeles [UCLA]) using latent variable structural models. The Rutgers sample was cross-sectional, whereas the UCLA sample provided longitudinal data. Results supported the theoretical hypothesis that Perceived Loss of Control and Meaninglessness mediate the relation between Uncontrollable Stress and Substance Use. In the Rutgers data, the association between stress and drug use was clearly accounted for by the mediating constructs; in other words, no direct path was necessary to explain the relation between stress and general drug use. However, in the UCLA data there remained a direct influence of Uncontrollable Stress on Substance Use after accounting for the significant impact of the mediating constructs. Five other competing models were tested; four were rejected empirically, and the other was accepted, although it was less theoretically based than the mediational model.

Depression, self-derogation, substance use, and suicide ideation: lack of purpose in life as a mediational factor

A theoretical model of adolescent behavior is examined separately for males and females (N = 722). The model hypothesizes that depression and self-derogation may lead to a lack of purpose in life, which, in turn, may lead to suicide ideation and substance use. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation procedures were used to examine the model, using Bentlers (1984) EQS computer program, which is available from BMDP. For both the men and women, the model adequately accounted for the data although there were some important differences between the sexes. In response to psychic discomfort (i.e., Depression and Self-derogation), men are more apt to turn to drugs and alcohol, whereas women consider suicide. Conversely, the situation changes in response to feelings of meaninglessness or a lack of purpose in life. Here, the females appear to turn to substance use, whereas the males react with thoughts of suicide.

Multiple protective and risk factors for drug use and abuse: Cross-sectional and prospective findings.

A conceptual elaboration was developed that incorporates many risk and protective factors, and both direct and moderating (buffering) influences on drug involvement were tested. From prospective data, 14 factors related to drug use were selected and assigned empirically to either a multiple protective index (PFI) or a risk factor index (RFI). Analyses examined the relationships of the RFI, PFI, and their interaction on measures of cigarette, alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, and hard drug use cross-sectionally in late adolescence and later in young adulthood. These same variables were used to predict alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine abuse 8 years later. Vulnerability as measured by the RFI, PFI, and their interaction was highly associated with drug use in adolescence, moderately associated with certain types of drug use in young adulthood, and strongly associated with heightened drug problems in adulthood.

Internal and external mediators of women's sexual abuse in childhood

A community sample of 111 womens retrospective reports of childhood sexual abuse was examined in an effort to understand the circumstances and coping strategies that mediated the immediate and lasting effects of those stressful experiences. Aspects of single or multiple abuse incidents were captured in 11 variables, each reflecting 1 of 3 domains: circumstances of abuse, mediators, and outcomes (the negative effects of abuse). Observed variable simultaneous path analysis models revealed several direct and mediated influences on the outcomes. Long-term negative outcomes of abuse were directly affected by a close relationship to the perpetrator and severity of abuse from the circumstance of abuse domain, and immediate negative responses, self-blame, and nondisclosure regarding the incident from the mediational domain. The importance of examining factors that mediate the negative effects of child sexual abuse is discussed.

Substance Abuse and Psychosocial Risk Factors among Teenagers: Associations with Sex, Age, Ethnicity, and Type of School

The search for the one causal influence to account for youthful drug use has always failed. An alternate approach is advocated and tested that relates exposure to and impact of various types of psychosocial risk factors to understanding substance use. Data were obtained from 2,926 students in the 7th, 9th, and 11th grades. Twelve risk factors were selected and tested. These 12 variables were able to explain over 50% of the variance in a measure of general drug use. A unit-weighted, summed index of risk factors was linearly related to use and abuse (heavy use) of cigarettes, alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, hard drugs, and a composite substance use score. Differential exposure to and impact of risk factors on drug-taking behaviors were tested for differences by sex, age, ethnicity, and type of school attending. Patterns of exposure were somewhat different than patterns of vulnerability and impact, and can partially account for the status-group differences in drug use.

A Multidimensional Measure of Cultural Identity for Latino and Latina Adolescents

Many scales are available to measure acculturation. Unfortunately, most rely on a single indicator scale and fail to consider biculturality. Therefore, the multidimensional and multifaceted aspects of the complex phenomenon of cultural identity have not been adequately appreciated or assessed. Latino(a) college students (N = 130) responded to multiple items regarding language use, values/attitudes, behavior, and familiarity with aspects of American and Latino/a culture. Using exploratory factor analyses with oblique factor rotation, 10 interpretable and reliable factors were identified and compared to other criteria. The cultural identity scales included: Three for language, four for behavior/familiarity, and three for values/attitudes. Behavior and language differentiated between highly bicultural individuals, Latino/a identified, American identified, and low-level biculturals.

Influence of sensation seeking on general deviance and specific problem behaviors from adolescence to young adulthood

Indicators of a Sensation Seeking latent construct were assessed during adolescence and used to predict changes in repeatedly gathered measures of a latent construct of General Deviance. A community sample of 595 male and female Ss was assessed 3 times over a 5-year period from late adolescence to young adulthood. Most Ss reported use of licit drugs, about one half had tried illicit drugs, and a substantial minority had engaged in other delinquent or criminal activities. The General Deviance construct was stable over time, although specific cross-effects were found. Sensation Seeking was moderately correlated with General Deviance at all 3 levels but did not predict directly the General Deviance construct over time; the effects of Sensation Seeking on later deviant behavior and attitudes were specific rather than general.