Thomas F. Locke

Intergenerational cycle of maltreatment: a popular concept obscured by methodological limitations☆

OBJECTIVE The intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment is a controversial subject. Much of existing research is plagued with at least three fundamental weaknesses: (1) using case status to define subjects: (2) adopting a dichotomous perspective that does not consider the reality of maltreatment on various continua; and (3) using operational definitions that fail to differentiate between maltreatment subtypes. We controlled for these problems and examined the structure of child maltreatment and its influence on later parenting practices in an ethnically-diverse community sample. METHOD Data from a community sample of parents (N = 383) were analyzed with a Structural Equation Modeling methodology. Reliable and valid continuous measures of child maltreatment (Child Trauma Questionnaire) and parenting practices (Parental Acceptance and Rejection Questionnaire) were used. RESULTS Results revealed a moderately strong effect from a general factor of Child Maltreatment to a general factor of Poor Parenting for both mothers and fathers, supporting a common dysfunction transmission process. For mothers. Family Neglect by itself also led to poor parenting, and sexual abuse as a child led to aggressive parenting. For fathers, Child Maltreatment had a different structure, as sexual abuse was distinct from the factors of Family Abuse and Family Neglect. Also, for fathers, sexual abuse led to rejecting parenting practices. CONCLUSIONS This study supports the intergenerational cycle of child maltreatment hypothesis in such a way that several weaknesses in much of existing research were controlled. Clinical implications and potential mechanisms of transmission are discussed.

Psychosocial Predictors and Correlates of Suicidality in Teenage Latino Males

Multiple ecodevelopmental factors were tested as they influence suicidality in a community sample of Latino adolescent males. Risk factors tested included childhood maltreatment, parental alcohol-related problems, and polysubstance problems. Protective factors included general self-efficacy, social conformity, and family bonding. Male participants (N = 349) were recruited from the Los Angeles area. About 80% of the sample reported some suicidal ideation, and 26% reported a history of at least one suicide attempt. The strongest protective factor for suicidality was problem-solving confidence, followed by a good relationship with parents and being law abiding. The strongest risk factor for suicidality was emotional abuse, followed by hard drug use, mother’s alcohol-related problems, and sexual abuse. Broad-based theories, research, treatment, and prevention efforts are critical to implement with this population.

Correlates and predictors of HIV risk among inner-city African American female teenagers.

OBJECTIVE DESIGN For human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related prevention initiatives to be most effective, they should be broad-based and incorporate multiple domains of influence. This study tested how several ecodevelopmental domains influenced HIV-risk related attitudes and behaviors in a community sample of African American female teens (N = 242). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Outcome measures were number of partners, frequency of intercourse, number of pregnancies, abstinence/condom use, HIV/AIDS-related attitudes and behaviors, and HIV testing. RESULTS Structural Equation Modeling revealed many direct paths from ecodvelopmental domains to risky sexual behaviors. The findings include having more partners was associated with parental alcohol-related problems, more drug use, and a younger age at first intercourse. More frequent intercourse was associated with less cultural pride and more drug use. More pregnancies were related to a younger age at first intercourse and parental alcohol problems. HIV testing was associated with having experienced sexual abuse, an older age at first intercourse, and stronger self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS Prevention programs that focus on risk reduction could expand their focus beyond sexual behavior to include a broad-range of psychosocial domains that are associated with HIV-risk. The effectiveness of prevention programs should be monitored carefully for appropriateness in different ethnic groups.

Childhood maltreatment, parental alcohol/drug-related problems, and global parental dysfunction.

How do different types of child maltreatment relate to parental drug/alcohol problems? A series of confirmatory factor models were tested with cross-sectional data from a community sample (N = 477). Findings suggest that childhood maltreatment and parental drug problems are two distinct conditions that co-occur about 30% of the time; they are not completely independent, nor are they always related to each other. When they co-occur, greater problems characterized by global parental dysfunction are suggested. Furthermore. several reported experiences differed by gender: Family abuse and parent drug problems were more strongly related for men.

Pregnant Latina teenagers: Psychosocial and developmental determinants of how they select and perceive the men who father their children

Data from a community sample of 493 pregnant Latina teenagers were used to test a mediated model of mate selection with 5 classes of variables: (a) male partner characteristics (antisocial behaviors, negative relationships with women, harm risk, and relationship length), (b) young women’s psychosocial variables (antisocial behaviors, drug use, social competence, and psychological distress), (c) social connectedness (healthy attachment, cultural pride, and positive neighborhood perception), (d) childhood experiences (abuse, neglect, and satisfaction with childhood), and (e) a structural variable (age). Multiple pathways predicted the women’s choice of male partner. Psychological distress was strongly related to choosing partners with negative relationships with women, confirming W. B. Swann’s (1983, 1990) selfverification hypothesis. Counseling implications are discussed. Pregnancy rates among adolescent girls in the United States have been dropping recently (Ventura, Clarke, & Matthews, 1996), although they remain alarmingly high relative with rates in the rest of the world. It is important that rates among Latinas are dropping at a much slower rate than they are for other groups (Ventura, Martin, Curtin, Matthews, & Park, 2000). In California, for example, 1992 birth rates per thousand were 79, 95, and 123, respectively, among White, Black, and Hispanic teenagers (Henshaw, 1997). We need to know much more about causes, consequences, and factors that influence pregnancy for this vulnerable group of teenagers. Despite the relatively large teenage pregnancy literature, relatively little research has focused on psychological determinants of teen pregnancy (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1998), on the male partners (Goodyear, Newcomb, & Allison, 2000), or on factors that affect the young women’s choice of a male partner. The focus of this article is on uncovering the characteristics or attributes of pregnant Latina teenagers that are most influential in their choice of mate. To date, most teen pregnancy research has focused on establishing frequencies and base rates and testing relatively simple direct effects. Few studies have examined more sophisticated models, and even fewer have examined the relative relationships between multiple psychosocial and environmental factors in regard to mate selection. We view the processes that shape mate selec