Michael E. Wortzman

NLRX1 does not inhibit MAVS-dependent antiviral signalling.

NLRX1 is a member of the Nod-like receptor family of intracellular sensors of microbial- and danger-associated molecular patterns. NLRX1 has a N-terminal mitochondrial addressing sequence that localizes the protein to the mitochondrial matrix. Recently, conflicting reports have been presented with regard to the putative implication of NLRX1 as a negative regulator of MAVS-dependent cytosolic antiviral responses. Here, we generated a new NLRX1 knockout mouse strain and observed that bone marrow-derived macrophages and murine embryonic fibroblasts from NLRX1-deficient mice displayed normal antiviral and inflammatory responses following Sendai virus infection. Importantly, wild type and NLRX1-deficient mice exhibited unaltered antiviral and inflammatory gene expression following intranasal challenge with influenza A virus or i.p. injection of Poly (I:C). Together, our results demonstrate that NLRX1 does not participate in the negative regulation of MAVS-dependent antiviral responses.

The contextual role of TNFR family members in CD8(+) T-cell control of viral infections.

Immunity to viruses must be tightly controlled to avoid pathology. Receptors and ligands of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family play important roles in controlling lymphocyte activation and survival during an immune response. The role of specific TNF receptor (TNFR) family members in antiviral immunity depends on the stage of the immune response and can vary with the virus type and its virulence. Here, we focus on five members of the TNFR family that are prominently expressed on CD8+ T cells during viral infections, namely, 4‐1BB (CD137), CD27, OX40 (CD134), GITR, and TNFR2. 4‐1BB, CD27, OX40, and GITR have primarily prosurvival roles for CD8+ T cells during viral infection, although under some circumstances 4‐1BB, GITR, or CD27 signals can limit immunity. Although TNFR2 can be costimulatory under some circumstances, its main role in CD8+ T‐cell responses during viral infection appears to be in contraction of the response. Several TNF family ligands are being explored as adjuvants for viral vaccines, and agonistic antibodies to TNFR family members are being investigated for immunotherapy of chronic viral infection alone and in combination with checkpoint blockade. Such therapies will require thorough and specific optimization to avoid pathology induced by hyperstimulation of these pathways.

GITR-Dependent Regulation of 4-1BB Expression: Implications for T Cell Memory and Anti–4-1BB–Induced Pathology

The TNFR family member 4-1BB plays a key role in the survival of activated and memory CD8 T cells. However, the mechanisms that regulate 4-1BB re-expression on memory CD8 T cells after Ag clearance are unknown. In unimmunized mice, ∼10% of CD8 CD44hi memory T cells in the bone marrow (BM) and liver express 4-1BB, with minimal 4-1BB expression in spleen and lymph node. IL-2, IL-15, and IL-7 are collectively dispensable for 4-1BB expression on the memory CD8 T cells. Rather, T cell–intrinsic glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein (GITR) contributes to 4-1BB expression on CD8 T cells upon their entry into the BM or liver. Consistent with its role in regulation of 4-1BB, GITR is required on memory CD8 T cells for their persistence in vivo. These findings reveal site-specific effects of the BM and liver microenvironment on CD8 memory T cells. Previous work has demonstrated that 4-1BB agonists given to unimmunized mice induce splenomegaly, hepatitis, and other immune system anomalies. Moreover, severe liver pathology has been observed in a subset of anti–4-1BB–treated melanoma patients. Remarkably, the absence of GITR in mice almost completely abrogates cellular expansions, splenomegaly, and liver inflammation associated with anti–4-1BB agonist treatment of unimmunized mice. In contrast, lack of CD8 T cells selectively improves liver pathology, but not splenomegaly in the mice. Thus, the regulation of 4-1BB expression by GITR on CD8 T cells, as well as on other cells, contributes to the pathological effects of anti–4-1BB in unimmunized mice.

Contribution of 4–1BBL on radioresistant cells in providing survival signals through 4–1BB expressed on CD8+ memory T cells in the bone marrow

The persistence of memory lymphocytes is a critical feature of adaptive immunity. The TNF family ligand 4–1BBL supports the antigen‐independent survival of CD8+ memory T cells. Here, we show that mice lacking 4–1BB only on αβ T cells show a similar defect in CD8+ T‐cell recall responses, as previously shown in 4–1BBL‐deficient mice. We show that 4–1BB is selectively expressed on BM CD8+ but not CD4+ memory T cells of unimmunized mice. Its ligand, 4–1BBL, is found on VCAM‐1+ stromal cells, CD11c+ cells, and a Gr1lo myeloid population in unimmunized mice. Adoptive transfer of in vitro generated memory T cells into mice lacking 4–1BBL only on radioresistant cells recapitulates the defect in CD8+ T‐cell survival seen in the complete knockout mice, with smaller effects of 4–1BBL on hematopoietic cells. In BM, adoptively transferred DsRed CD8+ memory T cells are most often found in proximity to VCAM‐1+ cells or Gr1+ cells, followed by B220+ cells and to a much lesser extent near CD11c+ cells. Thus, a VCAM‐1+CD45− stromal cell is a plausible candidate for the radioresistant cell that provides 4–1BBL to CD8+ memory T cells in the BM.

LTβR signaling in dendritic cells induces a type I IFN response that is required for optimal clonal expansion of CD8+ T cells

During an immune response, antigen-bearing dendritic cells (DCs) migrate to the local draining lymph node and present antigen to CD4+ helper T cells. Antigen-activated CD4+ T cells then up-regulate TNF superfamily members including CD40 ligand and lymphotoxin (LT)αβ. Although it is well-accepted that CD40 stimulation on DCs is required for DC licensing and cross-priming of CD8+ T-cell responses, it is likely that other signals are integrated into a comprehensive DC activation program. Here we show that a cognate interaction between LTαβ on CD4+ helper T cells and LTβ receptor on DCs results in unique signals that are necessary for optimal CD8+ T-cell expansion via a type I IFN-dependent mechanism. In contrast, CD40 signaling appears to be more critical for CD8+ T-cell IFNγ production. Therefore, different TNF family members provide integrative signals that shape the licensing potential of antigen-presenting DCs.

GITR intrinsically sustains early type 1 and late follicular helper CD4 T cell accumulation to control a chronic viral infection.

CD4 T cells are critical for control of persistent infections; however, the key signals that regulate CD4 T help during chronic infection remain incompletely defined. While several studies have addressed the role of inhibitory receptors and soluble factors such as PD-1 and IL-10, significantly less work has addressed the role of T cell co-stimulatory molecules during chronic viral infection. Here we show that during a persistent infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) clone 13, mice lacking the glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor related protein (GITR) exhibit defective CD8 T cell accumulation, increased T cell exhaustion and impaired viral control. Differences in CD8 T cells and viral control between GITR+/+ and GITR-/- mice were lost when CD4 T cells were depleted. Moreover, mixed bone marrow chimeric mice, as well as transfer of LCMV epitope-specific CD4 or CD8 T cells, demonstrated that these effects of GITR are largely CD4 T cell-intrinsic. GITR is dispensable for initial CD4 T cell proliferation and differentiation, but supports the post-priming accumulation of IFNγ+IL-2+ Th1 cells, facilitating CD8 T cell expansion and early viral control. GITR-dependent phosphorylation of the p65 subunit of NF-κB as well as phosphorylation of the downstream mTORC1 target, S6 ribosomal protein, were detected at day three post-infection (p.i.), and defects in CD4 T cell accumulation in GITR-deficient T cells were apparent starting at day five p.i. Consistently, we pinpoint IL-2-dependent CD4 T cell help for CD8 T cells to between days four and eight p.i. GITR also increases the ratio of T follicular helper to T follicular regulatory cells and thereby enhances LCMV-specific IgG production. Together, these findings identify a CD4 T cell-intrinsic role for GITR in sustaining early CD8 and late humoral responses to collectively promote control of chronic LCMV clone 13 infection.

Intrinsic TNF/TNFR2 Interactions Fine-Tune the CD8 T Cell Response to Respiratory Influenza Virus Infection in Mice

TNF is an important inflammatory mediator and a target for intervention. TNF is produced by many cell types and is involved in innate inflammation as well as adaptive immune responses. CD8 T cells produce TNF and can also respond to TNF. Deficiency of TNF or TNFR2 has been shown to affect anti-viral immunity. However, as the complete knockout of TNF or its receptors has effects on multiple cell types as well as on lymphoid architecture, it has been difficult to assess the role of TNF directly on T cells during viral infection. Here we have addressed this issue by analyzing the effect of CD8 T cell intrinsic TNF/TNFR2 interactions during respiratory influenza infection in mice, using an adoptive transfer model in which only the T cells lack TNF or TNFR2. During a mild influenza infection, the capacity of the responding CD8 T cells to produce TNF increases from day 6 through day 12, beyond the time of viral clearance. Although T cell intrinsic TNF is dispensable for initial expansion of CD8 T cells up to day 9 post infection, intrinsic TNF/TNFR2 interactions potentiate contraction of the CD8 T cell response in the lung between day 9 and 12 post infection. On the other hand, TNF or TNFR2-deficient CD8 T cells in the lung express lower levels of IFN-γ and CD107a per cell than their wild type counterparts. Comparison of TNF levels on the TNFR2 positive and negative T cells is consistent with TNF/TNFR2 interactions inducing feedback downregulation of TNF production by T cells, with greater effects in the lung compared to spleen. Thus CD8 T cell intrinsic TNF/TNFR2 interactions fine-tune the response to influenza virus in the lung by modestly enhancing effector functions, but at the same time potentiating the contraction of the CD8 T cell response post-viral clearance.

T cell intrinsic NOD2 is dispensable for CD8 T cell immunity.

NOD2 is an intracellular pattern recognition receptor that provides innate sensing of bacterial muramyl dipeptide by host cells, such as dendritic cells, macrophages and epithelial cells. While NOD2s role as an innate pathogen sensor is well established, NOD2 is also expressed at low levels in T cells and there are conflicting data as to whether NOD2 plays an intrinsic role in T cell function. Here we show that following adoptive transfer into WT hosts, NOD2−/− OT-I T cells show a small decrease in the number of OVA-specific CD8 T cells recovered at the peak of the response to respiratory influenza virus infection. On the other hand, no such defect was observed upon intranasal immunization with a replication defective adenovirus carrying the OVA epitope recognized by OT-I, or when OVA was delivered with LPS subcutaneously, or when influenza-OVA was delivered intraperitoneally. Thus we observed a selective defect in NOD2-deficient T cell responses only during a live viral infection. Moreover, there was no apparent defect when NOD2−/− OT-I T cells were stimulated in vitro. Finally, this selective defect in recovery of NOD2-deficient CD8 T cells was not observed in a non-transgenic respiratory infection model in which mixed bone marrow chimeras were used such that the NOD2−/− T cells were allowed to develop and respond in a NOD2-sufficient host. Taken together our data indicate that T cell intrinsic NOD2 is not required for CD8 T cell responses to antigen delivered under a variety of conditions in vitro and in vivo. However, CD8 T cells that have developed in the absence of NOD2 show a selective and modest impairment in their response to live respiratory influenza infection.

CD30 Is Dispensable for T-Cell Responses to Influenza Virus and Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Clone 13 but Contributes to Age-Associated T-Cell Expansion in Mice

CD30 is a tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) family member whose expression is associated with Hodgkin’s disease, anaplastic large cell lymphomas, and other T and B lymphoproliferative disorders in humans. A limited number of studies have assessed the physiological role of CD30/CD30 ligand interactions in control of infection in mice. Here, we assess the role of CD30 in T-cell immunity to acute influenza and chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) clone 13 infection, two viral infections in which other members of the TNFR superfamily are important for T-cell responses. We show that CD30 is expressed on activated but not resting CD4 and CD8 T cells in vitro, as well as on regulatory T cells and marginally on T helper 1 cells in vivo during influenza infection. Despite this, CD4 and CD8 T-cell expansion in response to influenza virus was comparable in CD30+/+ and CD30−/− littermates, with no discernable role for the pathway in the outcome of influenza infection. Similarly, during persistent infection with LCMV clone 13, CD30 plays no obvious role in CD4 or CD8 T-cell responses, the level of T-cell exhaustion or viral control. In contrast, in the steady state, we observed increased numbers of total CD4 and CD8 T cells as well as increased numbers of regulatory T cells in unimmunized older (~8 months) CD30+/+ but not in CD30−/− age-matched littermates. Naive T-cell numbers were unchanged in the aged CD30+/+ mice compared to their CD30−/− littermate controls, rather the T-cell expansions were explained by an increase in CD4+ and CD8+ CD44mid-hiCD62L− effector memory cells, with a similar trend in the central memory T-cell compartment. In contrast, CD30 did not impact the numbers of T cells in young mice. These data suggest a role for CD30 in the homeostatic regulation of T cells during aging, contributing to memory T-cell expansions, which may have relevance for CD30 expression in human T-cell lymphoproliferative diseases.

Workshop Summary: Functions of the TNF Family in Infectious Disease

A session entitled, “Functions of the TNF family in infectious disease,” was held at the 12th International TNF conference at El Escorial, Spain, April 28, 2009. The session highlighted the diverse and complex interplay between pathogens and the immune system and how TNF family members can contribute to both immune protection and immune pathology. Here we summarize some of the key findings and unifying themes that are discussed in more depth in the chapters that follow [1–6].