Michael F. Lorber

Behavioral observation and coding

Research methods in both behavioral genetics and personality are currently at a crossroads. This chapter examines the disagreement about the genetics of behavior by reformulating its methodological foundation of twin and family studies. It applies the reformulation of older methods to gain realistic understanding of the newer ones that capitalize on the availability of measured DNA. The chapter highlights a particularly problematic aspect of scientific inference in the human behavioral sciences: the inference of causality from nonexperimental data. Religiosity was measured using four items (rated on four-point or five-point ordinal scale) assessing importance of religion, frequency of prayer, attendance at religious services, and attendance at youth groups. Random effects model was estimated in monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs using PROC MIXED in SAS. Linkage analysis has been the earliest molecular method to be adopted in the study of behavior because it requires minimal knowledge of actual genetic sequence.

Predictors of the Persistence of Male Aggression in Early Marriage

The prediction of husband-to-wife physical aggression was examined in a sample of 94 community couples in which the husband had engaged in at least one act of physical aggression toward his partner during the engagement period. Predictors were measured approximately one month prior to marriage, and physical aggression was assessed again at 6, 18, and 30 months postmarriage. Over seventy-six percent of the men who were physically aggressive during the engagement period were physically aggressive at one or more of the next three assessments across the initial 30 months of marriage. Nearly 62% were severely aggressive at one or more assessments. Results were generally supportive of the hypothesis that risk factors for persistent antisocial behavior would predict the persistence of aggression. More frequent physical partner aggression, aggressive personality styles, general aggression, and witnessing interparental aggression in the family of origin were associated with continued aggression. Only general aggression, and premarital physical aggression predicted the persistence of severe aggression.

Parenting and infant difficulty: testing a mutual exacerbation hypothesis to predict early onset conduct problems.

The prediction of conduct problems (CPs) from infant difficulty and parenting measured in the first 6 months of life was studied in a sample of 267 high-risk mother-child dyads. Stable, cross-situational CPs at school entry (5-6 years) were predicted by negative infancy parenting, mediated by mutually angry and hostile mother-toddler interactions at 24-42 months. Mother-child interactions late in toddlerhood were especially relevant for CPs. Contrary to predictions, difficult child behavior in the first 6 months of life was not consistently associated with CPs, either independently or in interaction with negative infancy parenting. The findings most strongly highlight the role of negative mothering in early infancy, and of changes in mother-toddler interaction, in early onset CPs.

Interrater agreement statistics with skewed data: evaluation of alternatives to Cohen's kappa.

OBJECTIVE In this study, we aimed to evaluate interrater agreement statistics (IRAS) for use in research on low base rate clinical diagnoses or observed behaviors. Establishing and reporting sufficient interrater agreement is essential in such studies. Yet the most commonly applied agreement statistic, Cohens κ, has a well known sensitivity to base rates that results in a substantial penalization of interrater agreement when behaviors or diagnoses are very uncommon, a prevalent and frustrating concern in such studies. METHOD We performed Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate the performance of 5 of κs alternatives (Van Eerdeweghs V, Yules Y, Holley and Guilfords G, Scotts π, and Gwets AC₁), alongside κ itself. The simulations investigated the robustness of these IRAS to conditions that are common in clinical research, with varying levels of behavior or diagnosis base rate, rater bias, observed interrater agreement, and sample size. RESULTS When the base rate was 0.5, each IRAS provided similar estimates, particularly with unbiased raters. G was the least sensitive of the IRAS to base rates. CONCLUSIONS The results encourage the use of the G statistic for its consistent performance across the simulation conditions. We recommend separately reporting the rates of agreement on the presence and absence of a behavior or diagnosis alongside G as an index of chance corrected overall agreement.

The emergence and evolution of infant externalizing behavior.

In the present investigation, we examined the developmental viability of the externalizing behavior construct spanning the period from 8 to 24 months of age. A sample of 274 psychologically aggressive couples was recruited from hospital maternity wards and followed from childbirth through 24 months of age. Mothers and fathers completed questionnaire measures of infant physical aggression, defiance, activity level, and distress to limitations at 8, 15, and 24 months. The developmental viability of externalizing behavior at each age studied was suggested by several results. Physical aggression, defiance, activity level, and distress to limitations reflected the operation of a single underlying externalizing behavior factor. In some cases, these individual facets of externalizing behavior became more strongly associated with one another over time. The externalizing construct exhibited remarkable longitudinal stability, with the stability of physical aggression and defiance increasing with age. The externalizing behavior construct was concurrently and prospectively associated with several factors in its nomological network (e.g., interparental conflict and poor parental bond with the infant). Our findings suggest that externalizing behaviors coalesce into a psychologically meaningful construct by 8 months of infant life. Researchers who seek to chart the emergence of the externalizing behavior construct may now need to look to earlier months.

A New Look at the Psychometrics of the Parenting Scale Through the Lens of Item Response Theory

The psychometrics of the Parenting Scales Overreactivity and Laxness subscales were evaluated using item response theory (IRT) techniques. The IRT analyses were based on 2 community samples of cohabiting parents of 3- to 8-year-old children, combined to yield a total sample size of 852 families. The results supported the utility of the Overreactivity and Laxness subscales, particularly in discriminating among parents in the mid to upper reaches of each construct. The original versions of the Overreactivity and Laxness subscales were more reliable than alternative, shorter versions identified in replicated factor analyses from previously published research and in IRT analyses in the present research. Moreover, in several cases, the original versions of these subscales, in comparison with the shortened versions, exhibited greater 6-month stabilities and correlations with child externalizing behavior and couple relationship satisfaction. Reliability was greater for the Laxness than for the Overreactivity subscale. Item performance on each subscale was highly variable. Together, the present findings are generally supportive of the psychometrics of the Parenting Scale, particularly for clinical research and practice. They also suggest areas for further development.

The Reliability Paradox of the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Corporal Punishment Subscale

In the present investigation we consider and explain an apparent paradox in the measurement of corporal punishment with the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-PC): How can it have poor internal consistency and still be reliable? The CTS-PC was administered to a community sample of 453 opposite sex couples who were parents of 3- to 7-year-old children. Internal consistency was marginal, yet item response theory analyses revealed that reliability rose sharply with increasing corporal punishment, exceeding .80 in the upper ranges of the construct. The results suggest that the CTS-PC Corporal Punishment subscale reliably discriminates among parents who report average to high corporal punishment (64% of mothers and 56% of fathers in the present sample), despite low overall internal consistency. These results have straightforward implications for the use and reporting of the scale.

Child externalizing behavior problems linked to genetic and non-genetic variation in dental caries

The association of environmental and genetic variation in caries with child externalizing behavior problems (inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and defiance) was studied in a sample of 239 pairs of 3- to 8-year-old impoverished Brazilian twins. It was hypothesized that externalizing problems would show a stronger positive association with environmental than genetic variation in caries. Univariate twin models were estimated to parse variation in caries into three components: additive genetic (A), shared environment (C) and non-shared environment/error (E). Age-adjusted associations between externalizing problems and each variance component were tested. Contrary to the hypothesis, modest but very consistent negative associations were found between externalizing problems and both genetic and environmental variation in caries. Mutans streptococci and sweetness preference did not explain the negative associations of caries and externalizing problems. Externalizing problems in non-medicated children were associated with less dental decay that could be explained by both genetic and environmental factors.

Mechanisms Linking Interparental Aggression to Child Dental Caries

Research has garnered support for a systemic view of factors affecting child dental caries that accounts for the influence of social factors such as the family environment. Our previous work has demonstrated the association between mother-to-father emotional aggression and child caries. The present study builds on these results by evaluating pathways that might explain this relation. Families (n = 135) completed a multimethod assessment of mother-to-father emotional aggression, child caries, and several hypothesized mediators (i.e., child cariogenic snack and drink intake, child internalizing behaviors, child salivary cortisol and α-amylase reactivity, parental laxness, child oral hygiene maintenance, and parental socialization of child oral hygiene maintenance). Mediation analyses partially supported the role of the childs diet as a mechanism linking mother-to-father emotional aggression and child caries. However, childrens neglect of oral hygiene, parental laxness, and child emotional and biological disturbances failed to stand as conduits for this association. Future investigations should expand upon these results to better establish the causal links that could only be suggested by the present cross-sectional findings.

Are Callous-Unemotional Traits Associated with Differential Response to Reward Versus Punishment Components of Parent-Training? A Randomized Trial

ABSTRACT Relatively poor treatment outcomes have been reported for children with conduct problems (CPs) and high levels of callous-unemotional (CU) traits (e.g., a lack of guilt, a lack of empathy, shallow affect), yet the mechanisms underlying this effect are poorly understood. Recently, growing evidence of aberrant reward/punishment processing in children with CU traits has suggested that punishment-based parenting strategies may be less effective among children with high levels of CU traits. Using a randomized controlled trial design, we conducted an experimental test of whether CU traits are associated with differential response to reward versus punishment components of evidence-based parent-training interventions for CPs. Parents of children (n = 74) 3 to 8 years of age were randomized to either 5 weeks of reward-based or 5 weeks of punishment-based parenting strategies, after which time each received the alternative intervention. Contrary to predictions, neither type nor dosage of parent training strategies was found to moderate the relation between CU traits and treatment response. Implications for the treatment of CPs in children with high levels of CU traits, and research into mechanisms of behavior change, are discussed.