Michael J. Beltran

Microbiology and injury characteristics in severe open tibia fractures from combat.

BACKGROUND: Type III open tibia fractures are common combat injuries. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of injury characteristics and surveillance cultures on outcomes in combat-related severe open tibia fractures. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of all combat-related open Gustilo and Anderson (G/A) type III diaphyseal tibia fractures treated at our centers between March 2003 and September 2007. RESULTS: One hundred ninety-two Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom military personnel with 213 type III open tibial shaft fractures were identified. Fifty-seven extremities (27%) developed a deep infection and 47 extremities (22%) ultimately underwent amputation at an average follow-up of 24 months. Orthopedic Trauma Association type C fractures took significantly longer to achieve osseous union (p = 0.02). G/A type III B and III C fractures were more likely to undergo an amputation and took longer to achieve fracture union. Deep infection and osteomyelitis were significantly associated with amputation, revision operation, and prolonged time to union. Surveillance cultures were positive in 64% of extremities and 93% of these cultures isolated gram-negative species. In contrast, infecting organisms were predominantly gram-positive. CONCLUSIONS: Type III open tibia fractures from combat unite in 80.3% of cases at an average of 9.2 months. We recorded a 27% deep infection rate and a 22% amputation rate. The G/A type is associated with development of deep infection, need for amputation, and time to union. Positive surveillance cultures are associated with development of deep infection, osteomyelitis, and ultimate need for amputation. Surveillance cultures were not predictive of the infecting organism if a deep infection subsequently develops. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Management of distal femur fractures with modern plates and nails: state of the art.

Fractures of the distal femur, even those with articular extension, are well suited to surgical fixation with modern precontoured anatomic plates and nails. Numerous adjuvant techniques are available to the treating surgeon to obtain and maintain reduction while preserving fracture biology. Yet despite their proven track record and benefits over older implants, technical errors are common and must be overcome with proper preoperative planning and intraoperative attention to detail. This review summarizes the current state of the art regarding distal femur fractures, with an emphasis on relevant modern plate and nail surgical techniques, tempered by our current understanding of implant biomechanics, fracture healing, and long-term outcomes.

Preoperative decision making in the treatment of high-angle "vertical" femoral neck fractures in young adult patients. An expert opinion survey of the Orthopaedic Trauma Association's (OTA) membership.

Objective: To identify the current implant and diagnostic imaging preferences among orthopaedic trauma experts for the treatment of high-energy vertical femoral neck fractures in young adult patients. Design: Web-based survey. Setting: Not available. Participants: Active members of the OTA. Methods: A cross-sectional expert opinion survey was administered to the active members of the OTA to determine their preferences for implant use and imaging in the surgical treatment of a vertical femoral neck fracture in a young adult patient (eg, 60-degree Pauwels angle fracture in a healthy 30-year-old patient). Questions were also asked regarding the reason why this implant was selected, whether the surgeon felt that their choice was supported by the literature, and what imaging studies are routinely obtained to guide decision making. Data were collected using simple multiple-choice questions and/or a 5-point Likert item. Results: Two hundred seventy-two surgeons (47%) responded to the survey. The preferred constructs for a vertical femoral neck fracture in a healthy young patient were a sliding hip screw with or without an anti-rotation screw (47%), parallel cannulated screws with an off-axis screw (28%), and parallel cannulated screw constructs (15%). When asked if their designated construct “was clearly supported by the literature,” 46% were either unsure or disagreed. Seventy percent of surgeons chose their preferred implant because it was “biomechanically most stable.” Most surgeons required anteroposterior pelvis (70%) and standard hip (88%) radiographs; however only 29% of surgeons required a computed tomography (59% found computed tomography helpful but not required). Twenty-seven percent of surgeons have changed their implant choice intraoperatively. Conclusions: Femoral neck fractures in young adult patients are a challenging problem with high rates of failed treatment. Many options for treatment exist and a consensus on the best method remains elusive. Our survey demonstrates the diversity and disagreement among OTA member “expert” orthopaedic traumatologists for the “best” treatment choice for this important clinical scenario. Our survey shows a divided level of confidence in the current literature and highlights the need for further study of this problem. Level of Evidence: Therapeutic Level V. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Measures of clinical outcome before, during, and after implementation of a comprehensive geriatric hip fracture program: is there a learning curve?

Objectives: To evaluate the effects of implementing a multidisciplinary geriatric hip fracture program on clinical outcome measures at our institution. Design: Retrospective comparative cohort study of consecutive patients treated before, during, and after implementation of this program, including patient data from electronic medical records and state death records. Setting: Single metropolitan level 2 regional trauma center and community hospital. Patients/Participants: Patients aged 60 years and older with operatively treated low-energy hip fractures were included. Patients with active cancer or a high-energy mechanism (motor vehicle crash or fall >3 ft) were excluded. Intervention: Patients were divided into 1 of 3 groups: (1) those treated before our hip fracture program (July 2008–April 2009), (2) during implementation of the hip fracture program (May 2009–Feb 2010), and (3) after the hip fracture program was instituted and participation was well established (March 2010–Dec 2010). Main Outcome Measures: Patient demographics, injury factors, and clinical outcomes, including performance measures (eg, time to medical clearance and surgery and length of stay) and patient deaths (in-hospital, 30 days, and 1 year), were compared. Results: There was significant improvement in clinical performance measures, including time to surgery and length of stay during and after implementation of our geriatric hip fracture program. The in-hospital mortality rate increased during the implementation phase of this program (P = 0.04). Once established, however, the in-hospital mortality decreased to a more typical level. Thirty-day and 1-year mortality rates were not significantly different among the 3 groups. Conclusions: Most clinical outcome measures improved significantly with implementation of our geriatric hip fracture program. Increased in-hospital mortality, however, was an unintended consequence seen while establishing this program and may represent a learning curve by health care providers. Patient demise in the longer term seemed to be unaffected by implementation of the program. Level of Evidence: Therapeutic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Quantification of the Exposure of the Glenohumeral Joint from the Minimally Invasive to More Invasive Subscapularis Approach to the Anterior Shoulder: a Cadaveric Study

BACKGROUND There are multiple techniques to approach the glenohumeral joint. Our purpose was to quantify the average area of the glenohumeral joint exposed with 3 subscapularis approaches and determine the least invasive approach for placement of shoulder resurfacing and total shoulder arthroplasty instruments. METHODS Ten forequarter cadaveric specimens were used. Subscapularis approaches were performed sequentially from split, partial tenotomy, and full tenotomy through the deltopectoral approach. Glenohumeral joint digital photographs were analyzed in Image J software (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA). Shoulder resurfacing and total shoulder arthroplasty instruments were placed on the humeral head, and anatomic landmarks were identified. RESULTS The average area of humeral head visible, from the least to the most invasive approach, was 3.2, 8.1, and 11.0 cm2, respectively. The average area of humeral head visible differed significantly according to the approach. Humeral head area increased 157% when the subscapularis split approach was compared with the partial tenotomy approach and 35% when the partial approach was compared with the full tenotomy approach. The average area of glenoid exposed from least to most invasive approach was 2.0, 2.3, and 2.5 cm2, respectively. No significant difference was found between the average area of the glenoid and the type of approach. Posterior structures were difficult to visualize for the subscapularis split approach. Partial tenotomy of the subscapularis allowed placement of resurfacing in 70% of the specimens and total arthroplasty instruments in 90%. CONCLUSIONS The subscapularis splitting approach allows adequate exposure for glenoid-based procedures, and the subscapularis approaches presented expose the glenohumeral joint in a step-wise manner. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Anatomy study, cadaver dissection.

Outcomes of high-grade open calcaneus fractures managed with open reduction via the medial wound and percutaneous screw fixation.

Objective: To determine the clinical and functional outcomes of high-grade (types II and III) open calcaneus fractures managed with a protocol of modern wound care, open reduction via the medial hindfoot wound, and percutaneous screw fixation. Design: Retrospective clinical series of consecutively treated patients. Setting: Regional trauma center (level 2). Patients/Participants: Seventeen consecutive patients with open type II and III calcaneus fractures treated with fracture repair by a single surgeon. Intervention: Soft tissue debridement and modern wound care, reduction of calcaneus fractures through the open medial wound, and percutaneous screw fixation. Main Outcome Measurements: Patient demographics and injury data, radiographic analyses, complications of treatment, and hindfoot outcomes assessed with American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Surgeon and Maryland Foot Scores and general health with the Short Form 36 measurement at a minimum of 12 months post injury. Results: Seventeen patients were available for follow-up at >12 months, with 15 completing all outcome measures. Four fractures were graded as type II, 9 as type IIIA, and 4 as type IIIB. There was 1 deep infection, and 1 wound dehiscence, both in type III open injuries; both were successfully treated with local wound care, delayed closure, and appropriate antibiotics. Overall, 7 of 17 (41%) patients required secondary surgical procedures, including 4 hindfoot fusions (23.5%). The average American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Surgeon score was 77 (range, 32–95), and the Maryland Foot Score was 64 (range, 16–93). The physical and mental components of the Short Form 36 averaged 44.4 and 49.1, respectively. Conclusions: Limb-threatening catastrophic complications are uncommon for high-grade open calcaneus fractures treated with modern soft-tissue care, fracture reduction using the medial open fracture wound, and percutaneously placed screw fixation. Limb and whole body functional outcomes are comparable to previously published reports of both closed and open calcaneus fractures. Level of Evidence: Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The Safe Zone for External Fixator Pins in the Femur.

Objective: To define the anatomic “safe zone” for placement of external fixator half pins into the anterior and lateral femur. Methods: In 20 fresh-frozen hemipelvis specimens, the femoral nerve and all branches crossing the femur were dissected out to their final muscular locations. The location where the nerves crossed the anterior femur was measured from the anterior superior iliac spine and inferior margin of the lesser trochanter. The knee joint was then opened, and the distance from the superior reflection of the suprapatellar pouch to the last branch of the femoral nerve crossing the anterior femur was measured, defining the safe zone for anterior pin placement. Results: The last branch of the femoral nerve crossed at an average distance from the anterior superior iliac spine of 174 ± 43 mm (range, 95–248 mm) and from the lesser trochanter at a distance of 58 ± 36 mm (range, 0–136 mm). The average distance from the proximal pole of the patella to the superior reflection of the suprapatellar pouch was 46.3 ± 13.1 mm (range, 20–74 mm). Using the linear distance between the last crossing femoral nerve branch and the superior reflection of the pouch, the average safe zone measured 199 ± 39.8 mm (range, 124–268 mm). The safe zone correlated with thigh length (r = 0.48, P = 0.03). All nerve branches terminated at their muscular origins without crossing lateral to a line from the anterior greater trochanter to the anterior aspect of the lateral femoral condyle. Conclusions: The safe zone for anterior external fixator half pin placement into the femur is on average 20 cm in length and can be as narrow as 12 cm. Anterior pins should begin 7.5 cm above the superior pole of the patella to avoid inadvertent knee joint penetration. Because the entire lateral femur is safely available for half pin placement, including distally, we recommend the use of alternative frame constructs with either anterolateral or lateral pins given the limitations and risks of anterior pin placement.

Fate of combat nerve injury.

Objective: Assess a cohort of combat-related type III open tibia fractures with peripheral nerve injury to determine the injury mechanism and likelihood for recovery or improvement in nerve function. Design: Retrospective study. Setting: Three military medical centers. Patients and Participants: Out of a study cohort of 213 type III open tibia fractures, 32 fractures (in 32 patients) with a total of 43 peripheral nerve injuries (peroneal or tibial) distal to the popliteal fossa met inclusion criteria and were available for follow-up at an average of 20 months (range, 2–48 months). Main Outcome Measurements: Clinical assessment of motor and sensory nerve improvement. Results: There was a 22% incidence of peripheral nerve injury in the study cohort. At an average follow-up of 20 months (range, 2–48 months), 89% of injured motor nerves were functional, whereas the injured sensory nerves had function in 93%. Fifty percent and 27% of motor and sensory injuries demonstrated improvement, respectively (P = 0.043). With the numbers available, there was no difference in motor or sensory improvement based on mechanism of injury, fracture severity or location, soft tissue injury, or specific nerve injured. In the subset of patients with an initially impaired sensory examination, full improvement was related to fracture location (P = 0.0164). Conclusions: Type III open tibia fractures sustained in combat are associated with a 22% incidence of peripheral nerve injury, and the majority are due to multiple projectile penetrating injury. Despite the severe nature of these injuries, the vast majority of patients had a functional nerve status by an average of 2-year follow-up. Based on these findings, discussions regarding limb salvage and amputation should not be overly influenced by the patients peripheral nerve status. Level of Evidence: Prognostic Level II. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The gradual expansion muscle flap.

SUMMARY High-energy open fractures of the tibia have traditionally been fraught with challenges to include bone comminution or loss, soft tissue loss, nonunion, and infection. A number of techniques have been implemented to treat the severe soft tissue loss typically involving the anteromedial surface of the tibia to include wet-to-dry dressings or Papineau techniques, negative pressure wound therapy, acellular dermal matrices, and rotational or free tissue transfer with Masquelet technique, primary shortening, and distraction osteogenesis to address bone loss. We present a novel technique and subsequent case series that obviates the need of free tissue transfer while treating high-energy type IIIB open tibia fractures by performing an acute shortening and angulation of the tibia and rotational muscle flap coverage and split-thickness skin grafting of the soft tissue defect. Distraction histiogenesis with circular external fixation is then used to correct the residual osseous deformity while stretching the rotational muscle flap.

Percutaneous clamping of spiral and oblique fractures of the tibial shaft: a safe and effective reduction aid during intramedullary nailing.

Summary: The reduction of tibial shaft fractures during intramedullary nailing is important if limb alignment is to be restored and successful clinical outcomes are expected. We have used a percutaneously applied (or open) clamp or clamps to achieve and maintain reduction during nailing of all amendable tibial shaft fractures. In this article, we describe the technique and preliminary results comparing closed, simple spiral and oblique tibial shaft fractures (OTA 42-A1 and A2) managed with percutaneous clamp-assisted nailing (CAN) versus nailing using manual reduction (MRN) held by the surgical team. In the MRN group, there were an increased fracture gap (P = 0.04) and trends toward malalignment (P = 0.07) and healing time (P = 0.06) compared with the CAN group. There were also trends in clinical; no wound complications occurred in either group. We have found that percutaneous CAN of closed, simple spiral and oblique tibial shaft fractures seems safe and allows for early predictable union with reproducible alignment compared with nailing using MRN.