Michael J. Orosco

One School’s Implementation of RTI With English Language Learners: “Referring Into RTI”

The purpose of this study was to determine how a response-to-intervention (RTI) model was implemented with a large percentage of Latino English language learners who were having reading difficulties in an urban elementary school at the primary level (K—2). The authors sought to describe school personnel’s perceptions of RTI, what the model looked like in their school, and the challenges they faced. The authors focused on how teachers’ understandings, beliefs, judgments, professional development, and training affected the RTI decision-making process by investigating classroom-based literacy instruction and problem-solving meetings. This study contributes to the literature by presenting a qualitative, in-depth description of how teachers implemented an RTI model for English language learners. These themes were intertwined and functioned as a negative cycle that created a deficits-based RTI literacy model.

Cognitive Strategies, Working Memory, and Growth in Word Problem Solving in Children With Math Difficulties

This study investigated the role of strategy instruction and working memory capacity (WMC) on word problem solving accuracy in children with (n = 100) and without (n = 92) math difficulties (MD). Within classrooms, children in Grades 2 and 3 were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions: verbal-only strategies (e.g., underlining question sentence), verbal + visual strategies, visual-only strategies (e.g., correctly placing numbers in diagrams), or untreated control. Strategy interventions included 20 sessions in both Year 1 and Year 2. The intent-to-treat as well as the “as-treated” analyses showed that treatment effects were significantly moderated by WMC. In general, treatment outcomes were higher when WMC was set to a high rather than low level. When set to a relatively high WMC level, children with MD performed significantly better under visual-only strategy conditions and children without MD performed better under verbal + visual conditions when compared to control conditions.

Culturally Responsive Instruction for English Language Learners With Learning Disabilities

This case study describes the culturally responsive instruction of one special education teacher with Latino English language learners (ELLs) with learning disabilities in an urban elementary school setting. This study was situated in a social constructivist research based framework. In investigating this instruction with ELLs, this study focused on how one teacher’s knowledge of culturally responsive pedagogy affected her special education instruction. Findings resulted in three major themes that were aligned with the current literature in this area: Cultural Aspects of Teaching Reading, Culturally Relevant Skills-Based Instruction, and Collaborative Agency Time. The results indicated that the success of special education with ELLs at the elementary education level might be dependent on how well the special education teacher integrates culturally responsive instruction with ELLs’ cultural and linguistic needs.

The Effects of Dynamic Strategic Math on English Language Learners’ Word Problem Solving

English language learners (ELLs) struggle with solving word problems for a number of reasons beyond math procedures or calculation challenges. As a result, ELLs may not only need math support but also reading and linguistic support. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a math comprehension strategy called Dynamic Strategic Math (DSM) on word problem solving for Latino ELLs. The strategy provides performance-contingent feedback based on the student’s reading and language comprehension level. A multiple baseline design was used to assess 6 second-grade Latino ELLs at risk for math failure/math disability. As compared with the baseline phase, DSM increased word problem solving for all the participants. All students’ level of performance was maintained during follow-up sessions. The results suggest the intervention facilitated math problem–solving performance.

Word Problem Strategy for Latino English Language Learners at Risk for Math Disabilities.

English Language Learners (ELLs) at risk for math disabilities (MD) are challenged in solving word problems for numerous reasons such as (a) learning English as a second language, (b) limited experience using math vocabulary, and (c) lack of strategies to improve word-problem-solving skills. As a result of these difficulties, ELLs may not only need math support but also oral language and reading development assistance. The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a math comprehension strategy procedure based on a dynamic assessment (DA) framework. The strategy provided scaffolding support based on the student’s reading and language comprehension levels. A multiple baseline was used to assess 6 third-grade Latino ELLs at risk for MD. As compared with baseline, the strategy increased problem-solving ability for all participants. All students’ level of performance was maintained during follow-up sessions. Results suggest that a focus on comprehension strategies may help facilitate math skills development for ELLs at risk for MD.

The Effects of Mathematics Strategy Instruction for Children with Serious Problem-Solving Difficulties

This study investigated the role of strategy instruction on solution accuracy in children with and without serious math difficulties (MD) in problem solving. Childrens posttest solution accuracy was compared on standardized and experimental measures as a function of strategy conditions. Strategy conditions included curriculum materials that gradually increased the number of irrelevant propositions within word problems. Children in Grade 3 (N = 193) were randomly assigned to one of five conditions: materials + verbal strategies (e.g., underlining the question), materials + verbal + visual strategies, materials + visual strategies (e.g., correctly placing numbers in diagrams), materials only-no overt strategies, and an untreated control. Compared to children with MD in the control condition, posttest outcomes for children with MD on standardized measures improved significantly under verbal + visual conditions, whereas posttest scores on the experimental problem-solving measures improved under the materials-only condition. Those strategy conditions found least effective made substantial demands on childrens working memory capacity. The authors discuss benefits and limitations of strategy instruction.

Growth in literacy, cognition, and working memory in English language learners.

This cohort sequential study explored the components of working memory that underlie English reading and language acquisition in elementary school children whose first language is Spanish. To this end, children (N=410) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 at Wave 1 were administered a battery of cognitive (short-term memory [STM], working memory [WM], rapid naming, phonological processing, and random letter and number generation), vocabulary, and reading measures in both Spanish and English. These same measures were administered 1 and 2 years later. The results showed that (a) a three-factor structure (phonological STM, visual-spatial WM, and verbal WM) captured the data within both language systems, (b) growth in both the executive and STM storage components was uniquely related to growth in second language (L2) reading and language acquisition, and (c) the contribution of growth in the executive component of WM to growth in L2 processing was independent of growth in storage, phonological knowledge, inhibition, and rapid naming speed. The results suggested that growth in the phonological storage system does not supersede growth of the executive component of WM as a major contributor to growth in childrens L2 reading and language.

Psychometric Properties of the Working Memory Rating Scale for Spanish-Speaking English Language Learners

The Working Memory Rating Scale (WMRS) was designed as a behavioral rating tool to assist teachers in identifying students at risk of working memory difficulties. The instrument was originally normed on 417 monolingual English-speaking children from the United Kingdom. The purpose of this study was to test the reliability and validity of the WMRS on 459 first- to third-grade Spanish-speaking English Language Learners. Results indicated the one-factor model demonstrated adequate fit to the data. High convergent validity emerged with the Conners’ rating scale, but weak correlations occurred with achievement, vocabulary, phonological, short-term memory, and working memory measures. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Predictive validity of dynamic testing and working memory as it relates to reading growth in children with reading disabilities

The purpose of this chapter is to review our findings related to the question “Do outcomes related to dynamic assessment on a cognitive measure predict reading growth?” Our discussion related to the predictive validity of such procedures focused on outcomes related to a battery of memory and reading measures administered over a three-year period to 78 children (11.6 years) with and without reading disabilities (RD). Working memory (WM) tasks were presented under initial, gain, and maintenance testing conditions. The preliminary results suggested that maintenance testing conditions were significant moderators of comprehension and vocabulary growth, whereas probe scores and gain testing conditions were significant moderators of nonword fluency growth. Overall, the results suggested that the dynamic assessment of WM added significant variance in predicting later reading performance.