Michael P. McCreery

Defining the virtual self: Personality, behavior, and the psychology of embodiment

Although researchers have discussed the existence of a virtual self, or embodiment of human characteristics within an avatar, little known about how the virtual self influences a players behavior within a virtual environment. To better understand this relationship, World of Warcraft game players were asked to complete personality-rating scales for both themselves and their avatars. In addition, in-world behavior was recorded and then analyzed using a behavioral assessment checklist. Results suggested a relationship between personality and behavior within the domain of agreeableness. Based on these findings, the researchers discuss implications for the construct known as the virtual self, as well as the inclusion of psychological systems design into the overall game design process.

A sense of self: The role of presence in virtual environments

Several factors contribute to an individuals experiences in computer-based environments. Previous research shows one such factor, the degree to which users feel connected to a virtual environment, influences the actions of individuals within the environment (Banos et al., 2008; Welch, 1999). Additional factors, such as peoples personality and the personality of their avatar, influence behaviors in virtual environments (McCreery, Krach, Schrader, & Boone, 2012). The current study focused on the role of presence as it affects behavior within the virtual environment. Presence has been defined as the psychological state where virtual experiences feel authentic. However, the degree to which presence acts as a mediating variable in virtual environments is not well understood. The current study employed a combination of survey instruments and direct observation to explore the relationships among personality of self and avatar, presence, and behaviors within a virtual environment. Findings indicated that participant scores in the domain of agreeableness were a significant predictor of agreeable behavior in the virtual environment. However, with the exception of negative effects (e.g., dizziness), presence does not appear to influence behavior. Overall implications for these findings are discussed.

Navigating Massively Multiplayer Online Games: Evaluating 21st Century Skills for Learning within Virtual Environments

There is a substantial and growing interest in immersive virtual spaces as contexts for 21st century skills like problem solving, communication, and collaboration. However, little consideration has been given to the ways in which users become proficient in these environments or what types of target behaviors are associated with 21st century skills. As a result, this exploratory study (n = 16) applied systematic direct observations to examine differences in expert and novice behaviors as they interact within the World of Warcraft (WoW). Trend analyses showed clear differences associated with the users level of expertise. In addition, significant differences were found in variables associated with social and spatial attunement to WoW across three points in time. Based on these findings, researchers discuss implications associated with 21st century skills, broader educational applications of these findings, and future avenues for research.

Social interaction in a virtual environment

Socio-Spatial Interactivity impacted Social Presence in the virtual environment.Social Presence impacted Socio-Spatial Interactivity in the virtual environment.Findings suggest that a positive feedback loop exists between variables. A behavioral observation methodology was employed in this study to examine how social behavior unfolds within a virtual environment and to identify what might perpetuate this behavior. Partial interval recording sampling was used to code social interactions (Socio-Spatial Interactivity and Social Presence) that occurred between experienced World of Warcraft players during their game play. Given the bidirectional nature of social interactions, Socio-Spatial Interactivity and Social Presence variables (Affective Association, Community Cohesion, Interaction Intensity, and Knowledge & Experience) were employed as both dependent and independent variables in two separate sets of regression analyses. Findings suggest that a positive feedback loop exists between Socio-Spatial Interactivity and Social Presence. Based on these findings, the researchers discuss implications for designers and end-users of virtual environments.

Are All Games the Same

Researchers have lauded games for their ability to promote situated activity, problem solving, and collaboration. Unfortunately, the characteristics of games vary widely (e.g., content, graphics, technological affordances). Some games constrain player’s experience to a left to right narrative experience (e.g., Mario Brothers) while others immerse the user in a 3D environment with thousands of peers (e.g., EverQuest). Each game is developed using different paradigms, tools, and underlying models; each provides distinct opportunities for learning. However, decades of research has documented that learning benefits are best achieved when we design technology to be closely integrated with objectives for learning and student and teacher interactions. It follows that effective assessment practices must take pedagogical objectives, environment characteristics, and learning affordances into account. As a result, this chapter examines three separate games, educational activities associated with those games, and the distinct assessment approaches involved. Informed by a learning sciences framework and Schrader’s (AACE J 16(4):457–475, 2008) model of technology and learning, we examine assessment of knowledge and skill acquisition as a result of learning from game content in BrainAge2, performance assessment and learning with SPORE, and direct observation assessment strategies when exploring the cognitive and behavioral interactions situated in the World of Warcraft. In each example, we outline the salient properties of these games, the pedagogical implications for learning, and the assessment philosophies and practices they imply.

Cultural-Linguistic Test Adaptations: Guidelines for Selection, Alteration, Use, and Review.

In 1991, Bracken and Barona wrote an article for School Psychology International focusing on state of the art procedures for translating and using tests across multiple languages. Considerable progress has been achieved in this area over the 25 years between that publication and today. This article seeks to provide a more current set of suggestions for altering tests originally developed for other cultures and/or languages. Beyond merely describing procedures for linguistic translations, the authors provide suggestions on how to alter, use, and review tests as part of a cultural-linguistic adaptation process. These suggestions are described in a step-by-step manner that is usable both by test adapters and by consumers of adapted tests.

Positive Behavioral Supports: Empirically Supported Use of Behavioral Logs

Teachers commonly use behavioral logs as a primary method for controlling classroom behavior, but frequently they are using these logs incorrectly. For this reason, this article provides specific information on how to correctly use behavioral logs for techniques such as check-in/check-out, behavioral report cards, and token economies. Each of these are described in terms of empirical support for their use and how they would be integrated into a positive behavioral and intervention support model. Concrete examples are provided for school-based practitioners to use when working with their own students.

Do Dispositional Characteristics Influence Reading? Examining the Impact of Personality on Reading Fluency

Previous research demonstrates specific relationships between personality traits and general academic performance. In addition, research studies have demonstrated relationships among personality and variables related to reading fluency (i.e. speed, accuracy, automaticity, and prosody). However, little investigation has examined specific links between personality and reading fluency. The researchers hypothesized that there is a direct relationship between personality and reading fluency when accounting for cognitive ability. Findings indicate that the personality trait of openness is a positive predictor of reading fluency ability even when accounting for variance associated with cognitive ability.

Technology and positive behavioral interventions and support: Evaluation, selection, and implementation of computer-based socioemotional training.

Abstract Children’s socioemotional and behavioral development comprises the foundation for school-based mental health services; however, many teachers lack knowledge of specific techniques to help children in these areas ( Baker, 1999 ). This chapter introduces the use of a common school-based design, Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS; OSEP, 2009), as a vehicle to provide effective socioemotional and behavioral services. In addition, the chapter investigates challenges endemic to integrating technology-based intervention tools into this PBIS framework. Specifically, the authors critique technology-based interventions as well as provide methods to review and critique technology-based, socioemotional and behavioral programs.

Toward a Framework for Learning and Digital Games Research

Digital environments, serious games, video games, and game-based simulations continue to expand as foundations (e.g., Quest2Learn schools in New York City and Chicago) and adjuncts (e.g., River City, Whyville, Civilization) to pre-college-level curriculum and learning. However, studies examining the psychology of learning from, with, and within digital game settings have remained largely atheoretical (Connolly, Stansfield & Hainey, 2008; de Freitas, 2007; Ebner & Holzinger, 2006; Honey & Hilton, 2011; Klabbers, 2003; Van Eck, 2007; Wu, Chiou, Kao, Alex Hu, & Huang, 2012). Both private and public funders of games and learning have increasingly recognized this situation, which has clear ramifications for what we can learn about the impact of game play for instruction and about the factors influencing that impact (Girard, Ecalle & Magnan, 2012; Huizenga, Admiraal, Akkerman, & Dam, 2009; Ito et al., 2013; Ke, 2009; NSF Task Force on Cyberlearning, 2008). Our goal in this special issue has been to bring together researchers with a common interest in elucidating the factors that impact the efficacy of game play for learning— including gender; developmental level (Blumberg, Almonte, Anthony, & Hashimoto, 2012); motivation for learning (Kitching & Wheeler, 2013; Przybylski, Rigby, & Ryan, 2010); socioemotional factors such as empathy, anxiety, flow, frustration, and joy (Huang & Tettegah, 2010; Reese, 2016; Tettegah & Huang); and specific content/skills targeted for instruction (Lu, Buday, Thompson, & Baranowski, 2016). We hoped that presenting these researchers’ efforts to develop theoretical and conceptual frameworks in which to examine these factors would inspire educational psychologists to develop effective games to promote transferable learning within formal and informal environments (Ferguson & Garza, 2011; NSF Cyberlearning Task Force, 2008; Zyda, 2007).