Michael Soltis

Crystal structure of glyceraldehyde‐3‐phosphate dehydrogenase from Plasmodium falciparum at 2.25 Å resolution reveals intriguing extra electron density in the active site

The crystal structure of D‐glyceraldehyde‐3‐phosphate dehydrogenase (PfGAPDH) from the major malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is solved at 2.25 Å resolution. The structure of PfGAPDH is of interest due to the dependence of the malaria parasite in infected human erythrocytes on the glycolytic pathway for its energy generation. Recent evidence suggests that PfGAPDH may also be required for other critical activities such as apical complex formation. The cofactor NAD+ is bound to all four subunits of the tetrameric enzyme displaying excellent electron densities. In addition, in all four subunits a completely unexpected large island of extra electron density in the active site is observed, approaching closely the nicotinamide ribose of the NAD+. This density is most likely the protease inhibitor AEBSF, found in maps from two different crystals. This putative AEBSF molecule is positioned in a crucial location and hence our structure, with expected and unexpected ligands bound, can be of assistance in lead development and design of novel antimalarials. Proteins 2006.

Crystal structures and proposed structural/functional classification of three protozoan proteins from the isochorismatase superfamily.

We have determined the crystal structures of three homologous proteins from the pathogenic protozoans Leishmania donovani, Leishmania major, and Trypanosoma cruzi. We propose that these proteins represent a new subfamily within the isochorismatase superfamily (CDD classification cd004310). Their overall fold and key active site residues are structurally homologous both to the biochemically well‐characterized N‐carbamoylsarcosine‐amidohydrolase, a cysteine hydrolase, and to the phenazine biosynthesis protein PHZD (isochorismase), an aspartyl hydrolase. All three proteins are annotated as mitochondrial‐associated ribonuclease Mar1, based on a previous characterization of the homologous protein from L. tarentolae. This would constitute a new enzymatic activity for this structural superfamily, but this is not strongly supported by the observed structures. In these protozoan proteins, the extended active site is formed by inter‐subunit association within a tetramer, which implies a distinct evolutionary history and substrate specificity from the previously characterized members of the isochorismatase superfamily. The characterization of the active site is supported crystallographically by the presence of an unidentified ligand bound at the active site cysteine of the T. cruzi structure.

Heme-Coordinating Inhibitors of Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase. Iron-Thioether Coordination is Stabilized by Hydrophobic Contacts Without Increased Inhibitor Potency

The heme-thioether ligand interaction often occurs between heme iron and native methionine ligands, but thioether-based heme-coordinating (type II) inhibitors are uncommon due to the difficulty in stabilizing the Fe-S bond. Here, a thioether-based inhibitor (3) of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) was designed, and its binding was characterized by spectrophotometry and crystallography. A crystal structure of inhibitor 3 coordinated to heme iron was obtained, representing, to our knowledge, the first crystal structure of a thioether inhibitor complexed to any heme enzyme. A series of related potential inhibitors (4-8) also were evaluated. Compounds 4-8 were all found to be type I (non-heme-coordinating) inhibitors of ferric nNOS, but 4 and 6-8 were found to switch to type II upon heme reduction to the ferrous state, reflecting the higher affinity of thioethers for ferrous heme than for ferric heme. Contrary to what has been widely thought, thioether-heme ligation was found not to increase inhibitor potency, illustrating the intrinsic weakness of the thioether-ferric heme linkage. Subtle changes in the alkyl groups attached to the thioether sulfur caused drastic changes in the binding conformation, indicating that hydrophobic contacts play a crucial role in stabilizing the thioether-heme coordination.

Structure of a ribulose 5‐phosphate 3‐epimerase from Plasmodium falciparum

The crystal structure of Pfal009167AAA, a putative ribulose 5‐phosphate 3‐epimerase (PfalRPE) from Plasmodium falciparum, has been determined to 2 Å resolution. RPE represents an exciting potential drug target for developing antimalarials because it is involved in the shikimate and the pentose phosphate pathways. The structure is a classic TIM‐barrel fold. A coordinated Zn ion and a bound sulfate ion in the active site of the enzyme allow for a greater understanding of the mechanism of action of this enzyme. This structure is solved in the framework of the Structural Genomics of Pathogenic Protozoa (SGPP) consortium. Proteins 2006.

Single Crystal Structural and Absorption Spectral Characterizations of Nitric Oxide Synthase Complexed with Nω-Hydroxy-l-arginine and Diatomic Ligands,

The X-ray structures of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) with N(omega)-hydroxy-l-arginine (l-NHA) and CO (or NO) bound have been determined at 1.91-2.2 A resolution. Microspectrophotometric techniques confirmed reduced redox state and the status of diatomic ligand complexes during X-ray diffraction data collection. The structure of nNOS-NHA-NO, a close mimic to the dioxygen complex, provides a picture of the potential interactions between the heme-bound diatomic ligand, substrate l-NHA, and the surrounding protein and solvent structure environment. The OH group of l-NHA in the X-ray structures deviates from the plane of the guanidinium moiety substantially, indicating that the OH-bearing, protonated guanidine N(omega) nitrogen of l-NHA has substantial sp(3) hybridization character. This nitrogen geometry, different from that of the guanidinium N(omega) nitrogen of l-arginine, allows a hydrogen bond to be donated to the proximal oxygen of the heme-bound dioxygen complex, thus preventing cleavage of the O-O bond. Instead, it favors the stabilization of the ferric-hydroperoxy intermediate, Fe(3+)-OOH(-), which serves as the active oxidant in the conversion of l-NHA to NO and citrulline in the second reaction of the NOS.

UV-Visible Absorption Spectroscopy Enhanced X-ray Crystallography at Synchrotron and X-ray Free Electron Laser Sources

This review describes the use of single crystal UV-Visible Absorption micro-Spectrophotometry (UV-Vis AS) to enhance the design and execution of X-ray crystallography experiments for structural investigations of reaction intermediates of redox active and photosensitive proteins. Considerations for UV-Vis AS measurements at the synchrotron and associated instrumentation are described. UV-Vis AS is useful to verify the intermediate state of an enzyme and to monitor the progression of reactions within crystals. Radiation induced redox changes within protein crystals may be monitored to devise effective diffraction data collection strategies. An overview of the specific effects of radiation damage on macromolecular crystals is presented along with data collection strategies that minimize these effects by combining data from multiple crystals used at the synchrotron and with the X-ray free electron laser.

Molecular mimicry in deoxy-nucleotide catalysis: the structure of Escherichia coli dGTPase reveals the molecular basis of dGTP selectivity

Deoxynucleotide triphosphate triphosphyohydrolyases (dNTPases) play a critical role in cellular survival and DNA replication through the proper maintenance of cellular dNTP pools by hydrolyzing dNTPs into deoxynucleosides and inorganic triphosphate (PPPi). While the vast majority of these enzymes display broad activity towards canonical dNTPs, exemplified by Sterile Alpha Motif (SAM) and Histidine-aspartate (HD) domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1), which blocks reverse transcription of retroviruses in macrophages by maintaining dNTP pools at low levels, Escherichia coli (Ec)-dGTPase is the only known enzyme that specifically hydrolyzes dGTP. However, the mechanism behind dGTP selectivity is unclear. Here we present the free-, ligand (dGTP)- and inhibitor (GTP)-bound structures of hexameric E. coli dGTPase. To obtain these structures, we applied UV-fluorescence microscopy, video analysis and highly automated goniometer-based instrumentation to map and rapidly position individual crystals randomly-located on fixed target holders, resulting in the highest indexing-rates observed for a serial femtosecond crystallography (SFX) experiment. The structure features a highly dynamic active site where conformational changes are coupled to substrate (dGTP), but not inhibitor binding, since GTP locks dGTPase in its apo form. Moreover, despite no sequence homology, dGTPase and SAMHD1 share similar active site and HD motif architectures; however, dGTPase residues at the end of the substrate-binding pocket mimic Watson Crick interactions providing Guanine base specificity, while a 7 Å cleft separates SAMHD1 residues from dNTP bases, abolishing nucleotide-type discrimination. Furthermore, the structures sheds light into the mechanism by which long distance binding (25 Å) of single stranded DNA in an allosteric site primes the active site by conformationally “opening” a tyrosine gate allowing enhanced substrate binding. Significance Statement dNTPases play a critical role in cellular survival through maintenance of cellular dNTP. While dNTPases display activity towards dNTPs, such as SAMHD1 –which blocks reverse transcription of HIV-1 in macrophages– Escherichia coli (Ec)-dGTPase is the only known enzyme that specifically hydrolyzes dGTP. Here we use novel free electron laser data collection to shed light into the mechanisms of (Ec)-dGTPase selectivity. The structure features a dynamic active site where conformational changes are coupled to dGTP binding. Moreover, despite no sequence homology between (Ec)-dGTPase and SAMHD1, both enzymes share similar active site architectures; however, dGTPase residues at the end of the substrate-binding pocket provide dGTP specificity, while a 7 Å cleft separates SAMHD1 residues from dNTP.

Sample extractor for serial crystallography at XFELs and synchrotron sources

The short X-ray pulses produced by X-ray Free Electron Lasers (XFELs) can produce diffraction information on time scales that outrun radiation damage processes, enabling structural investigations using extremely small and weakly diffracting crystals at ambient temperatures. Since each crystal exposed is destroyed in the process, full datasets are assembled from a series of still diffraction images collected from many individual crystals delivered in progression, a process known as Serial Femtosecond Crystallography (SFX). Unfortunately, the technical challenges and complexity of sample delivery using crystal injectors often limits the wider use of SFX.