Michael Vollmer

Physics of the microwave oven

This is the first of two articles about the physics of microwave ovens. This article deals with the generation of microwaves in the oven and includes the operation of the magnetrons, waveguides and standing waves in resonant cavities. It then considers the absorption of microwaves by foods, discussing the dielectric relaxation of water, penetration depths of electromagnetic waves in matter and, in considering the possible chemical changes during the microwave heating, multi-photon ionization or dissociation.

Newton's law of cooling revisited

The cooling of objects is often described by a law, attributed to Newton, which states that the temperature difference of a cooling body with respect to the surroundings decreases exponentially with time. Such behaviour has been observed for many laboratory experiments, which led to a wide acceptance of this approach. However, the heat transfer from any object to its surrounding is not only due to conduction and convection but also due to radiation. The latter does not vary linearly with temperature difference, which leads to deviations from Newtons law. This paper presents a theoretical analysis of the cooling of objects with a small Biot number. It is shown that Newtons law of cooling, i.e. simple exponential behaviour, is mostly valid if temperature differences are below a certain threshold which depends on the experimental conditions. For any larger temperature differences appreciable deviations occur which need the complete nonlinear treatment. This is demonstrated by results of some laboratory experiments which use IR imaging to measure surface temperatures of solid cooling objects with temperature differences of up to 300 K.

Infrared thermal imaging as a tool in university physics education

Infrared thermal imaging is a valuable tool in physics education at the university level. It can help to visualize and thereby enhance understanding of physical phenomena from mechanics, thermal physics, electromagnetism, optics and radiation physics, qualitatively as well as quantitatively. We report on its use as lecture demonstrations, student projects and practical lab work.

High speed and slow motion: the technology of modern high speed cameras

The enormous progress in the fields of microsystem technology, microelectronics and computer science has led to the development of powerful high speed cameras. Recently a number of such cameras became available as low cost consumer products which can also be used for the teaching of physics. The technology of high speed cameras is discussed, facilitating an understanding of the problems and restrictions in using these cameras.

Laboratory experiments in atmospheric optics

Old and new laboratory experiments on atmospheric optics with a focus on mirages, rainbows, and halos are presented. Some qualitative demonstrations serve primarily didactical purposes, e.g., by proving the existence of curved light rays in media with a gradient of the index of refraction, by directly visualizing the minimum-deviation curve for rainbow paths in water droplets, or by helping to elucidate the ray classes in hexagons that contribute to a specific halo. In addition, quantitative experiments allow a direct comparison of angular positions and intensities with analytical computations or Monte Carlo simulations of light scattering from small water droplets or ice hexagons. In particular, the latter can help us to understand complex halo phenomena.

There is more to see than eyes can detect

This paper briefly describes the method of infrared imaging and gives a selection of its numerous possible applications. Emphasis will be on the visualization of phenomena discussed in high school physics or introductory physics courses at college/university.

Oscillating droplets and incompressible liquids: slow-motion visualization of experiments with fluids

We present fascinating simple demonstration experiments recorded with high-speed cameras in the field of fluid dynamics. Examples include oscillations of falling droplets, effects happening upon impact of a liquid droplet into a liquid, the disintegration of extremely large droplets in free fall and the consequences of incompressibility.

Measurements and predictions of the illuminance during a solar eclipse

Measurements of illuminance during a solar eclipse are presented. The data are compared to theoretical predictions, based on a geometrical model for obscuration. The model assumes a straight and uniform motion of the sun and moon as well as a spherical shape of both, i.e. it neglects any effects of limb darkening. Furthermore, the suns disk is assumed to have homogeneous luminosity, i.e. any luminosity variations due to sun spots are neglected. Input parameters are the duration of the eclipse, the duration of totality, the impact parameter, i.e. the distance between the two trajectories of sun and moon, and the sizes of sun and moon. The model applies to all types of eclipses, partial, annular and total.

Rings around the sun and moon: coronae and diffraction

Atmospheric optical effects can teach much about physics and especially optics. Coronae—coloured rings around the sun or moon—are large-scale consequences of diffraction, which is often thought of as only a small effect confined to the laboratory. We describe coronae, how they are formed and experiments that can be conducted on ones in the sky. Recognizing that this is not always convenient, we show how students can also learn about coronae and thus diffraction from experiments with accurate full-colour computer simulations and laboratory demonstrations.

The physics of near-infrared photography

The physics behind the sometimes strange effects and ‘unnatural’ appearance of near-infrared (NIR) photographs is discussed in terms of reflection, absorption and transmission of NIR radiation with the respective objects. Besides discussing how NIR cameras work, several visible and NIR photograph pairs are presented, which include vegetation, natural water, clouds, the sky, and humans. In addition, some physics-oriented experimental NIR images are presented which clearly demonstrate some of the basic physics behind some of these awesome sights. (Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)